Organized Crime Offenders Research Articles

When and where we are: Comparing early criminal careers of organized crime offenders in Italy and the Netherlands across decades

PurposeThis study examines the early criminal careers of organized crime offenders in Italy and the Netherlands and assess how these behaviors have evolved across generations. We (1) compare the early careers with the entire career in the two country samples and (2) assess the influence of generational shifts and social changes on these behaviors, particularly focusing on crime control policies. MethodsAnalyzing data on male offenders born between 1950 and 1986, we analyze criminal careers up to ages 23 and 30. Our analysis includes statistical assessments of differences between countries and among decades, employing multinomial logistic regressions to explore the associations between criminal career parameters and crime categories and the offenders' decade of birth. ResultsSignificant differences were found between the Italian and Dutch samples, reflecting country-specific dynamics in organized crime involvement. Evidence suggests minimal generational shifts towards more serious offending, but notable impacts of social changes, especially in anti-drug and anti-organized crime policies, across individuals born in different decades. ConclusionsBoth the societal context (‘where we are’) and temporal influences (‘when we are’) are essential in understanding criminal careers. Changes in policies and social conditions differentially affected organized crime offenders in Italy and the Netherlands.

Trapped in an Abusive Relationship with an Organized Crime Offender: the Importance of Mental Health Support

AbstractThis study aims to get more insight into experiences in the process towards mental recovery and the feasibility of providing mental health support to victims of intimate partner violence (IPV) committed by organized crime offenders in The Netherlands. 150 female victims were identified and, when reached, offered the option for safe and anonymous mental health support for their trauma-related symptoms. We used a mixed-method design involving information from police files (n = 150), patient files (n = 7), focus groups with therapists involved in the mental health support program (n = 4) and in-depth interviews with patients themselves (n = 4). Results showed that participants in the interviews experienced many mental health complaints, but limited access to mental health support. They were trapped in a relationship characterized by violence, psychological warfare and a forced dependency. All interviewed participants were isolated from social support and society in general. Escaping the criminal partner was extremely difficult and even when the participant successfully regained some form of independency, true separation appeared to be almost impossible. The participants felt little support from governmental and non-governmental aid organisations in this process. The mental health support in the current project proved challenging but feasible. Findings suggest that victims of IPV committed by organized crime offenders urgently need professional help. Actions to ensure their safety and to overcome barriers that hamper access to aid organizations are required.

Comparing the criminal careers of organized crime offenders in Italy and the Netherlands

The concept of organized crime has dynamically evolved, with researchers contending that it is a social construct or an umbrella concept encompassing different empirical manifestations. Scholars have often suggested classifying organized crime groups into those involved in “racketeering” or “governing” and those engaged in “transit crime” or “trading.” However, these propositions were never assessed at the level of individual criminal careers. We address two primary objectives: first, we test differences in the criminal careers of organized crime offenders between organized crime contexts that are historically different—comparing Italy, which is primarily known for racketeering organized crime, to the Netherlands, which is characterized more by transit crime. Second, we explore differences between criminal careers of organized crime offenders born in different decades; doing so allows us to measure differences in offending patterns in shifting organized crime contexts due to broader social changes while considering more country-specific changes in law enforcement and organized crime policies. The study relies on the criminal careers of 4480 organized crime offenders in Italy ( n = 3360) and the Netherlands ( n = 1120). We analyze the distributions of criminal career parameters, crime categories, age-crime curves, and offending trajectories. Offenders in Italy exhibit higher offending, earlier violence, earlier onset, and decline; offenders in the Netherlands display later onset, slower decline, and a greater involvement in drug and property offenses. Also, both samples show generalist offending patterns, long-lasting careers, and involvement in organized crime in adulthood. We also find substantial variation across decades of birth, with younger offenders in both countries reporting higher frequencies. We attribute this to the interplay of increased offending among younger individuals, the implicit selection bias in the sampling, and greater law enforcement pressure due to stricter anti-organized crime policies since the 1980s and 1990s.

Co-offending and the Persistence of Violence: A Dynamic Analysis

ObjectivesPrevious research underscores the influence of prior violent co-offending on subsequent violent behavior, linking it to a social contagion mechanism akin to the internalization of violence. However, these studies are limited by disregarding the entirety of a criminal career and overlooking diverse co-offending dynamics beyond co-offenders’ characteristics. This study examines the longitudinal impact of prior violent (solo and co-) offending on future individual-level violent behavior among Italian organized crime offenders.MethodsLeveraging criminal career data from 9819 Italian organized crime offenders, we model offending choices through a discrete-time Markov process. Subsequently, employing dynamic random-effects probit models, we quantify the influence of prior violent (solo and co-) offending on future violence, considering various confounders and unobserved individual-level effects.ResultsViolence is a persistent and long-lasting behavior among organized crime offenders. Prior violent co-offending has a greater impact than prior violent solo offending on the probability of future violence. Prior violent co-offending increases the probability of future violent co-offending but does not impact the probability of future violent solo offending.ConclusionsThe results show that co-offending promotes the transmission of violence but fail to support the internalization of violent behavior postulated by prior studies. We propose possible alternative mechanisms of violence transmission that operate through self-sustaining dynamics of violent co-offending within criminal groups. Although limited data on individual characteristics constrains interpretation, our results imply that violence transmission dynamics are independent from the individual characteristics of the co-offenders and more directly connected to group effects.

The onset of criminal careers of organized crime offenders in Poland: the relationship between age and crime

The onset of criminal careers of organized crime offenders in Poland: the relationship between age and crime

Co-offending and Criminal Careers in Organized Crime

The growing research on co-offending over the life course is based on relatively small, general offending samples, followed for a short period, and from a limited set of countries. This study expands current knowledge by examining the relation of co-offending with age, criminal experience, crime type, and crime seriousness in a large sample of Italian serious organized crime offenders with criminal careers spanning between age 14 and late adulthood. The sample includes 160,262 offenses by 10,530 Italian mafia offenders. After preliminary descriptive statistics, random-effects logistic regressions estimate how age, criminal experience, crime type, and seriousness are independently related to the co-offending probability. Co-offending decreases only moderately with both the age and criminal experience of organized crime offenders, while more prolific offenders exhibit a stable co-offending prevalence as their experience increases. Co-offending varies significantly by crime type, and it is more frequent for more serious offenses. In line with previous research, co-offending has a relevant functional component even for organized crime offenders: results suggest it is instrumental to perpetrating specific offense types and more serious offenses. However, results also show that specific social and criminal contexts promote co-offending among older and more experienced offenders.

Walls of silence and organized crime: a theoretical and empirical exploration into the shielding of criminal activities from authorities

In this article, we aim to further our understanding of the social embeddedness of organized crime by exploring the (possible) ways the social environment adds to the shielding of organized crime or criminal activities by organized crime groups. We argue that the metaphor of ‘walls of silence’ provides a fruitful way to examine the shielding of organized crime. Based on a theoretical and empirical exploration of 30 cases from the fifth data sweep of Dutch Organized Crime Monitor, we illustrate how organized crime offenders in the Netherlands depend on the silence and secrecy of co-offenders, victims, bystanders, and others who are aware of their (criminal) activities. Furthermore, we present a framework of the shielding of organized crime activities to provide insight into how offenders not only make use of the social environment to shield their activities, but also how the social environment can (purposely) act as walls of silence and secrecy.

Correction to: Intergenerational continuity of crime among children of organized crime offenders in the Netherlands

Correction to: Intergenerational continuity of crime among children of organized crime offenders in the Netherlands

Intergenerational continuity of crime among children of organized crime offenders in the Netherlands

As existing literature on intergenerational continuity of criminal behavior is mainly based on data on ‘general’ offenders and their children, the current study aims to improve our knowledge by looking at intergenerational continuity of crime among a national sample of children of organized crime offenders. Judicial data on all (N= 478) offenders convicted of organized crime in the Netherlands (in the period 2008 - 2014) and their children were used to study offspring’s involvement in crime. In addition, a comparison group was selected from the entire population in the Netherlands to examine the relative risk of offending. Results show that almost half of the children of organized crime offenders have a criminal record. Sons are significantly more at risk of offending and this risk also increases strongly by age. Furthermore, the results show the strongest intergenerational relation for violent crimes. Gender of the convicted parent and timing of parental crime also seem to play a role in the continuity. With regard to the relative risk of offending, the results show that children of convicted organized crime offenders are three times more at risk of offending compared to children in the comparison group, even after controlling for the number of parental crimes. In sum, there is a substantial risk of intergenerational continuity of criminal behavior among children of organized crime offenders. Future research would benefit from focusing on how criminal behavior in these specific families is transmitted to future generations.

Employment and crime: A longitudinal follow-up of organized crime offenders

Employment is considered to help offenders desist from crime. Studies focusing on organized crime offenders, however, have suggested that employment may promote rather than inhibit crime for these offenders, but lacked quantitative individual-level data to confirm this finding. Using a large sample of organized crime offenders ( N = 1921) and longitudinal individual data on offending, employment, income and financial support, the current study aims to clarify the role of employment in the offending careers of these offenders. Fixed effects models show the effects of employment, self-employment and employment on the payroll. For organized crime offenders, being employed is associated with a 10 percent increase in offending and having their own business is associated with a 23 percent increase in offending. For organized crime offenders in leadership positions, employment is associated with a 47 percent increase in offending and owning a business is associated with a 68 percent increase in offending.

Organized Crime and Criminal Careers

AbstractWidely accepted findings in developmental and life-course criminology cannot be extended to criminal careers of organized crime offenders. While most offenders begin offending at a young ag...

Money talks money laundering choices of organized crime offenders in a digital age

ABSTRACTIn this explorative study we provide empirical insight into how organized crime offenders use IT to launder their money. Our empirical data consist of 30 large-scale criminal investigations into organized crime. These cases are part of the most recent, fifth data sweep of the Dutch Organized Crime Monitor (DOCM). We do not focus on cybercrime alone. Instead, we explore the financial aspects of criminal operations in a broad range of types of organized crime, i.e. from ‘traditional’ types of organized crime, such as offline drug smuggling, to cybercrime. Regarding the spending of criminal proceeds (consumption and investment), the analyses show several similarities and no major differences between traditional crime and cybercrime. When it comes to concealing criminal earnings (money laundering), we do see important differences. Financial innovation, such as the use of cryptocurrencies, seems to be limited to cases of IT-related crime. One of the most striking similarities between cybercrime and traditional crime is the offenders’ preference for cash. In the analysed cases, malware and phishing offenders as well as online drug traffickers change their digital currencies for cash, at least in part.

Children of Organized Crime Offenders: Like Father, Like Child? An Explorative and Qualitative Study Into Mechanisms of Intergenerational (Dis)Continuity in Organized Crime Families

This qualitative descriptive study aims to explore (1) the extent of intergenerational continuity of crime in families of organized crime offenders, (2) the mechanisms underlying this phenomenon and (3) the mechanisms underlying intergenerational discontinuity. The study comprised a descriptive analysis of the available numeric information on 25 organized crime offenders based in Amsterdam and their 48 children of at least 19 years of age and a more qualitative in-depth analysis of police files, justice department files and child protection service files of all the family members of 14 of the 25 families. Additionally, interviews with employees of the involved organizations were conducted. In terms of prevalence in official record crime statistics, the results show that a large majority of the organized crime offenders’ sons seem to follow in their fathers’ footsteps. This is not the case for daughters, as half of them have a criminal record, but primarily for only one minor crime. Intergenerational transmission seems to be facilitated by mediating risk factors, inadequate parenting skills of the mother, the “famous” or violent reputation of the father, and deviant social learning. If we want to break the intergenerational chain of crime and violence, the results seem to suggest that an accumulation of protective factors seem to be effective, particularly for girls. For girls, supervision from a child protection service also seems to work quite well. For boys, we might need a different approach to prevent them from offending.

Adaptation, rationality, and advancement: ethnic Albanian organized crime in New York City

The objective of this research is to understand the expansion and advancement of ethnic Albanian organized crime groups in New York City. Many European law enforcement agencies have depicted Albanian organized crime groups as dangerous due to their ability to overcome obstacles, their propensity to use violence, and also because they have progressed from simple service providers to working within the highest echelons of international organized crime. This research examines whether Albanian organized crime groups in New York City have developed more stable structures through the strategic acquisition of information. The article tries to answer: Do Albanian organized crime groups in New York have a long-term strategy for advancement? Are they more risk-seeking and irrational than other organized crime offenders, or are they more risk-averse and rational? Are they malleable learning organizations? This study takes both a thematic and chronological approach, and examines the process of change across four key areas (structure of the criminal organizations; criminal activities; violence; and infiltration and corruption) and over three time periods (1975–1991; 1992–2002; 2003–2014). The conclusions are based on content analysis of court files and official government documents as well as interviews with law enforcement officials and Albanian organized crime offenders, inside and outside of U.S. Federal Prisons.

Profitability, Power, or Proximity? Organized Crime Offenders Investing Their Money in Legal Economy

This article uses empirical data from the Dutch Organized Crime Monitor to give empirical insight into the choices organized crime offenders make when they invest their money in legal economy. Using a dataset of 1196 individual investments, light is shed on what kind of assets offenders purchase and where these assets are located. The results are used to assess the tenability of different theoretical perspectives and assumptions that are present in the literature on money laundering and organized crime: the standard economic approach (‘profit’), the criminal infiltration approach (‘power’) and social opportunity structure (‘proximity’). The results of this study show that offenders predominantly invest in their country of origin or in their country of residence and that their investments consist of tangible, familiar assets such as residences and other real estate and (small) companies from well-known sectors. Investments such as bonds, options, and stocks in companies in which offenders are not personally (or indirectly) involved, such as stocks in companies noted on the stock exchange, were only found in a small number of cases. In other words: offenders usually stay close to home with their investments. So, instead of profitability or power, proximity seems to be a better description of their investment choices.

Organized Crime Offenders in Canada: Risk, Reform, and Recidivism

This study extends our knowledge about the rehabilitation of criminal organization offenders by focusing on their community outcomes upon release, and identifying the risk factors related to reoffending for 332 organized crime offenders released from federal penitentiaries in Canada prior to March 31, 2009. Of that group, 12.7% were readmitted to prison, which was about one half the percentage of a matched group of nonorganized crime offenders. These results are especially relevant given that most of these offenders were affiliated with traditional organized crime groups, such as the Mafia or outlaw motorcycle gangs, and, as such, are likely to be admitted to prison with well entrenched criminogenic beliefs and negative peer associations. These findings provide empirical evidence that these offenders do have the potential for successful community reentry. Implications for the development of correctional programs are discussed.

Involvement mechanisms for organized crime

This study aims to illuminate the processes that make individuals engage in organized crime activities. Within the diversity of individual involvement processes, several distinctive mechanisms are discussed. Theoretical ideas are illustrated by empirical data on 15 crime groups, including over 300 offenders. The crime groups differ in size, composition, and the nature of criminal activities. Social capital theory is used to understand the dynamical process of becoming involved in organized crime; on the one hand an individual contributes to a crime group, on the other hand the crime group helps an individual reach certain goals. Case studies reveal several resources, such as knowledge, skills, and equipment, that make offenders suit and contribute to a particular organized crime group. Criminal and conventional histories of organized crime offenders turn out to be diverse. Several joint characteristics that opened doors to organized crime opportunities, like running one’s own business, are discussed. It is confirmed that involvement through family and long-time friends is common; most criminal groups contain at least one or two relatives.

Comparing Criminal Careers of Organized Crime Offenders and General Offenders

Organized crime differs substantially from high-volume crime, at least theoretically. But do offenders differ as well? This study makes an extensive comparison between offenders who engage in organized crime at a particular moment in their lives and general offenders, based on various dimensions of their criminal careers. Many organized crime offenders do not have judicial contacts before adulthood. Surprisingly, this turns out to be the case for the comparison group as well. However, organized crime offenders do more often have previous judicial contacts, and those previous contacts are also far more serious. These general findings are robust; they also hold when the comparisons are restricted to organized crime offenders and general offenders who have engaged in drug crimes and fraud cases.