Orchard Maintenance Research Articles

The Potential Diversity of Agricultural Biomass in the Context of the Organization of Agricultural Production and Circular Agriculture in Poland

Agriculture is one of the key sectors of the economy, but it also generates many residues and waste that are only partially used (as, for example, feed, litter, and fertilizer). The resulting residues and waste can be valuable components for other sectors of the economy (e.g., energy), contributing to the implementation of a circular economy. The main aim of the research is to assess the diversity of the biomass potential from agricultural residues in the context of the level of organization of agricultural production and circular agriculture in Poland at the local level (314 counties). The level of organization of agricultural production was determined using the synthetic measure based on four variables (average farm size, number of tractors per farm, share of farms producing for the market, and the number of AWU per 100 ha of UAA). The potential of agricultural biomass was estimated on the basis of existing surpluses of straw, hay, energy crops grown on marginal lands, and residues from orchard maintenance. The data came from the General Agricultural Census conducted by the Polish Statistical Office in 2020. The conducted research showed that over 75% of counties are characterized by a high and medium level of organization of agricultural production. However, unused biomass resources from agricultural production residues are common (2/3 of counties are characterized by high and medium potential). There is a positive relationship between the level of biomass potential from agricultural residues and the level of organization of agricultural production at the local level in Poland, but the strength of this relationship is weak.

A rapid real‐time PCR assay for detecting columnar growth in apples (Malus × domestica)

AbstractColumnar growth in apples can have considerable positive consequences for orchard maintenance, but the lack of columnar cultivars producing fruits with desired market quality prevents their broader utilization in orchards. New crossings focused on their breeding are therefore conducted throughout the world every year. Unfortunately, the reliable discrimination between columnar growth and normal phenotype is difficult until seedlings are 2–3 years of age. However, molecular marker–assisted selection (MAS) can be used in seedlings several weeks old providing immense help in breeding programmes focused on columnar apple production. Here, we describe a rapid and reliable method for the detection of both wild‐type (WT) and columnar (Co) alleles originating from ‘McIntosh Wijcik’ in a single reaction using a real‐time PCR allelic discrimination approach. Our assay was tested in 130 genotypes (80 normal and 50 columnar habit) from various crossings and their parents, and in all cases, genotype corresponded to phenotype. The assay is thus suitable for laboratories interested in high‐throughput MAS for columnar tree habit breeding.

Occurrence of Weeds in an Orchard due to Cultivation of Long-Term Perennial Living Mulches

The living mulch permanence along with the succession of their weed infestation in an apple orchard were evaluated at the Research Station, Wrocław University of Environmental and Life Sciences. The perennial cover crops: white clover and colonial bent grass, as well as the annual dwarf nasturtium, were sown as living mulches in apple tree rows, in the year of establishing the orchard. Blue fescue was sown one year later to replace the dwarf nasturtium. The percent of covers and temporal dominance dynamics of weeds were estimated during the first 13 years of the orchard maintenance. The occurrence of annual weeds, which had been abundant in all the living mulches in the year of their sowing, decreased in the following years of orchard maintenance. Conversely, the dominance of several perennial weed species increased as the orchard reached the full cropping period. White clover exhibited the lowest permanence. Dynamic spreading of <em>Elymus repens </em>(L.) Gould and other species from the Poaceae family was the direct cause of this cover crop disappearance. The presence of perennial dicotyledonous weeds, primarily <em>Taraxacum officinale </em>Web. and <em>Convolvulus arvensis </em>L., also contributed to the diminished sod of all the living mulches. Blue fescue maintained satisfactory dominance relative to colonial bent grass for nearly the entire first decade of the research. Nevertheless, both grass living mulches were present on less than half of the tree row soil surface area, in the thirteenth year after planting of the apple trees.

Agro-Pruning for Energy as a Link between Rural Development and Clean Energy Policies

Agrarian pruning and plantation removal (APPR) is a common residue from pomo-technical maintenance of orchards, vineyards, and olive groves, frequently overlooked by the energy sector. This paper sheds new light on the socio-economic role of APPR as solid biofuel. The paper suggests business models that could both alleviate energy poverty in rural areas and increase the competitiveness of perennial crop (fruits, olives, vine) production. The effects of mobilizing APPR potential via business models are estimated at the micro (households’ income) and macro (number of households affected, size of the investment, tax effect, CO2eq savings) levels in the Croatian setting. Contrary to classical energy planning, the paper provides an approach that fosters local use of bioenergy by linking rural development with renewable energy end-use. The approach linked pruning energy potential with 47% of Croatian rural households which allows creating an evidence-based policy for rural development utilizing APPR as a sustainable solid biofuel. The most attractive business model for Croatian rural areas is utilization of APPR as a solid biofuel. It could be used as an energy poverty alleviation measure, allowing savings per heating season equivalent to 5%–11% of the average disposable income per household. Net APPR influence at VAT tax is estimated at 5.5 million euro·y−1. The paper proves that using average values for APPR in energy planning could be misleading.

Quantifying Tree Hydration Using Electromagnetic Sensors

An automated method of determining tree water status would enable tree fruit growers, foresters and arborists to reduce water consumption, reduce orchard maintenance costs and improve fruit quality. Automated measurements could also be used to irrigate based on need rather than on fixed schedules. Numerous automated approaches have been studied; all are difficult to implement. Electromagnetic sensors that measure volumetric water content can be inserted in tree trunks to determine relative changes in tree water status. We performed automated measurements of dielectric permittivity using four commercially available electromagnetic sensors in fruit tree trunks over the 2016 growing season. These sensors accurately measure the ratio of air and water in soils, but tree trunks have minimal air-filled porosity. The sensors do respond, however, to bound and unbound water and the relative change in the output of the sensors thus provides an indication of this ratio. Sapwood is the hydro-dynamically responsive component of trunk anatomy and is nearest the bark. Sensor response improved when the waveguides were exposed to a greater percentage of sapwood. Irrigation-induced increases of approximately 0.5 MPa in stem water potential were associated with 0.5 unit increases in dielectric permittivity. Electromagnetic sensors respond to bound water in trees and thus have the potential to indicate tree water status, especially when the sensor rods are in contact with sapwood. Sensor modifications and/or innovative installation techniques could enable automated measurements of tree water status that could be used to precision irrigate trees.

Școli și cursuri țărănești organizate de asociația „Astra“, între anii 1939-1940

The aim of this research is to present an objective analysis, starting from the texts of the historical documents issued by the Transylvanian Association for Romanian Literature and Culture of the Romanian People (“ASTRA”) between 1939 and 1940 regarding the schools and the courses organized for young adult peasants in Transylvania. The study presents the events, transformations and challenges that “Astra” had to face while trying to maintain its specific forms of activity and cultural manifestation. During 2 or 3 months, particularly in winter season, the organization of such courses had the gift to breathe life into village, waking up the interest and the participation of local intellectuals, many of them being part of the education system, and to break up the villagers‘ habitual inertia. In accordance with “Astra” ‘s educational curricula, Romanian young students, women and men, were taught notions about: agriculture, pomiculture, apiculture, animal husbandry, household maintenance, orchard maintenance and cultivation, legal notions, cooperative businesses and credit unions, general information about personal hygiene, sexuality, puericulture, Romanian language and literature, Romanian history, mathematics, physics, chemistry, music, religion, ethical and moral values. The lecturers who delivered those classes were doctors, priests, engineers, agronomists, lawyers, notaries, professors, institutes, teachers, officers. These specific forms of cultural and educational emancipation of young adult peasants were undertaken by divisions of “Astra” in at least 34 villages and cities. According to the documents of the “Astra” fund at Sibiu County Service of the National Archives issued between August 1939 and August 1940, through their representatives in the territory and in collaboration with the local Agricultural Chambers or with their own local divisions, “Astra” organized 40 peasant schools and agricultural courses attended by approximately 1194 men and 390 women.

Physical and chemical characteristics of renewable fuel obtained from pruning residues

Wood residues generated from orchard maintenance operations represent a serious disposal problem, as well as a valuable opportunity for the bioenergy sector. However, their widespread use as renewable fuel is hindered by uncertainty about crucial quality issues, such as: ash content, ash melting behavior and chemical composition. This paper investigates the main physical and chemical characteristics of pruning residues generated by five of the most common European orchard crops: vine, olive, apple, pear and hazelnut. The results of the analyses are contrasted with the quality specifications set by EU standard UNI EN 14961-1 2010 for forest residues, in the absence of a standard specifically designed for orchard pruning residues. All tested orchard residues biomasses fulfill set specifications, and they also present similar characteristics in terms of ash content, size distribution and heating value. However, the chemical composition of pear and vine residues may raise some concern, due to the high content of nitrogen of the former, and to the high ash, sulfur and chlorine content of the latter. Olive and hazelnut pruning residues seem the most suitable for direct combustion, probably because the origin crops are cultivated less intensively and receive smaller chemical inputs.

Constraints faced by farmers of Haryana state in adoption of masumbi (Citrus sinensis) cultivation

The study focused on the constraints faced by farmers of Haryana state in adoption of masumbi (Citrus sinensis) cultivation. The study was conducted in Bhiwani district. The constraints as perceived by the respondents were measured by the scores on the basis of magnitude of the problems. Constraints were categorized into inputs, marketing, production, technical and psychologicalconstraints. While analyzing overall constraints as perceived by farmers the findings revealed that high price of insecticides/pesticides (weighted mean score 2.25), non-availability of inputs at proper time (1.13), absence of agro-processing units (2.05), no support price (1.86), aberrant climatic conditions (1.99), unawareness about proper and balanced fertilizer application and time of application (1.99), lack of guidance of post-harvest technology (1.95), lack of knowledge of current advances in fruit cultivation (1.34), longer time taken in fruit bearing (1.51) and orchard maintenance(1.34) etc. were major constraints faced by the farmers.

Good Orchard Maintenance and Agronomic Practices as Working Components in Management of Dieback Disease on Passion Fruit (Passiflora sp.) in Kenya

Passion fruit is of high economic importance in Kenya. In the recent past, diseases have led to decline in fruit production. This study aimed at identifying disease management practices that could be adopted to mitigate disease impacts. Passion fruit varieties used include purple passion (Passiflora edulis Sims) and the KPF hybrid. Field maintenance practices assessed include frequency of orchard sanitation through regular weeding and pruning, pesticide application, nutrient and water provision to plants during the dry season. Agronomic factors assessed include grafting, prunning and effect of wounding in increasing plants’ susceptibility to dieback infections. Assessments were done on-farm and on station; 3 research sites were identified in the field and 1 site was set up on-station. For each of the 3 on-farm sites, a farmer’s performance in orchard maintenance was rated for all the factors on a score of 1-5 and compared to disease severity (1-5 dieback scale ) and incidence (0-100%). Experiments were set up to assess role of grafting on 4 months Original Research Article Annual Research & Review in Biology, 4(9): 1397-1405, 2014 1398 old purple passion seedlings, while effects of prunning and wounding were assessed on 9 months old passion fruit plants of both varieties. Disease establishment was observed and severity was assessed based on the 1-5 dieback scoring chart. Results showed that proper field maintenance reduced disease incidence and severity (12% and 1.6, respectively) in site 1, while poor maintenance yielded higher levels (55% and 4.0, respectively) in site 3. Agronomic practices important in transmission of dieback pathogens on the purple variety were pruning, grafting and wounding. These were found to enhance disease establishment and severity (P ≤ 0.05) on the purple variety while KPF 12 was tolerant to dieback infections. The study established that proper agronomy and field maintenance practices are important and should be integral in control of dieback disease.

Shoot Preformation and Neoformation in Pistachio: Influences on Bearing Habit and Yield Components

Rootstock significantly alters the pattern of shoot growth of pistachio (Pistacia vera) cv. Kerman. Trees grown on P. atlantica typically produce a single flush of spring growth, whereas trees on P. integerrima selection PGI and P. atlantica × P. integerrima selection UCB-1 can produce multiple flushes during the season. We have shown that the spring flush is entirely preformed in the dormant bud for all three rootstocks, but later flushes are neoformed, that is, nodes are initiated and extended during the same season. Shoots producing both preformed and neoformed growth have lower yield efficiency than those producing only preformed growth. Additionally, yield components of the crop from shoots with both preformed and neoformed growth was different than for shoots producing only preformed growth. However, these differences do not appear to be significant at the whole tree level. These data suggest that neoformed growth can both compete with fruit growth for available resources (lower yield efficiency) and act as an additional source (altered yield components), depending on the factor being measured. Controlling neoformed growth may potentially increase pistachio yield through a shift to the more efficient preformed shoots while at the same time lowering orchard maintenance costs by reducing required pruning. We have data to indicate that regulated deficit irrigation and new pruning techniques may be viable methods for controlling neoformed growth in pistachio without affecting yield.

475 Performance of Koelaria macrantha (Ledeb.) J.A. Schultes `Barkoel' and Low Maintenance Turfgrass Species for Orchard Floor Management

Various turfgrass species and cultivars are utilized for orchard floor management. Selection and establishment of low-maintenance species compatible with site conditions results in less need for mowing, fertilizing, and pesticide applications. Koelaria macrantha (Ledeb.) J.A. Schultes is a new turfgrass species that has demonstrated outstanding low-maintenance characteristics. This study evaluated the only commercially available cultivar `Barkoel' and three other species, including Festuca arundinacea Schreb (tall fescue), Festuca rubra L. ssp. falax Thuill (chewings fescue), and Festuca longifolia auct. non Thuill (hard fescue). Turf was seeded in a commercial peach orchard in Oct. 1996 and evaluated through Oct. 1999. After 3 years, the hard fescue cultivars had the best quality, with excellent density and low weed populations. Chewings fescue also had good density and few weeds. Tall fescue had good density, but more weeds than the hard and chewings fescues. Koelaria macrantha `Barkoel' had unacceptable quality, with poor density and the highest weed populations. The fine fescues, hard and chewings, suffered damage from orchard maintenance equipment. Damage was most severe during heat and drought stress in Summer 1999. Growers should limit equipment traffic on hard and chewings fescues during heat and drought stress. Tall fescue showed no significant damage from equipment, but it demonstrated a faster vertical growth rate. This increases the need for mowing. Koelaria macrantha `Barkoel' was not damaged by equipment. While Koelaria had the least density and most weeds after 3 years, it has performed well in our other tests. Higher seeding rates or modifications in seedbed preparation may improve density and reduce weed infestations.

Apple, Insecticide Evaluations, 1993

Abstract Insecticides were applied to 10 year old ‘Ida Red’ apple trees on MM III rootstocks. Five three row plots were randomly selected and one was assigned to each treatment. The two outside rows served as guard rows. Data were collected from four or five replicate trees randomly selected from the middle rows in each plot. Treatments were applied with a power take off driven FMC (model 252S) sprayer calibrated to deliver 50 gpa (76.62 liters/ha.), a 6x concentration for this orchard. Treatments were applied on 27 Apr, 21 May and 6 Jul. Other insecticide sprays included a delayed dormant spray of superior oil (60 sec.) applied to the control and the Lannate + Guthion plots on 8 Apr. Guthion 35W (2 lb./A) was added to all sprays (including the 6 Jul treatment) on the NTN33893 plot on and after 18 Jun. Other materials used for orchard maintenance are given later in a table. Insect predators were sampled in a three minute visual count per tree. RAA & AA (complex of AA & SA) were counted as number of infested terminals in 10/replicate, or number of infested water sprouts in 10/replicate, or number in 10 terminals/replicate on which the terminal leaf was infested. Tentiform leafminer and WALH data indicate the number of leaf mines or leafhoppers/leaf present when ten leaves/replicate were examined. Mite data were generated using the Henderson McBurnie method of brushing 20-leaf samples from each replicate. Mites and eggs were counted with a binocular microscope. Data were transformed to either log 10x +1 or square root X + .5 for analysis.

Effects of Nitrogen Fertilizer Level on Development and Populations of the Pecan Leaf Scorch Mite (Acari: Tetranychidae)1

Population development and specific effects of the pecan leaf scorch mite, Eotetranychus hicoriae (McGregor), were studied on pecan seedlings grown under N regimes of 0, 200, or 600 ppm. The largest mite population developed on seedlings with N at 200 ppm (recommended level for good orchard maintenance). The size of this population was attributed to enhanced mite reproduction and not to a shorter life cycle. Generation mortality was 65.3% at 0 ppm, 40.6% at 200 ppm, and 37.8% at 600-ppm N. Compared with that of control seedlings, net photosynthesis (Pn) was less in seedlings with mites at 200-ppm N, but was greater in seedlings with mites at 600-ppm N. Seedlings with mites and provided with 200-ppm N were shorter than seedlings without mites, but in the 600-ppm N test seedlings with mites were taller than seedlings without mites.