Orbital Breadth Research Articles

Morphometric cranial standards for sex estimation of a population in two ethnic groups in Southwest Iran

BackgroundThis study aimed to evaluate the cephalometric landmarks, cranial measurements, and cephalic index based on geographical and ethnic characteristics to make a database for the southwest Iranian population. MethodIn this analytical cross-sectional study, different anatomic criteria were collected from head MRI images. The anthropometric measures taken included the maximum cranial length, maximum cranial height, maximum cranial breadth, cranial base length, foramen magnum length, upper facial height, lower facial height, foramen magnum breadth, bizygomatic breadth, orbital breadth, nasion-opisthion. The categorization of the head shape was based on the cephalic index. The cranial index was calculated using the equation ([maximum cranial breadth/maximum cranial length] × 100). These assessments were compared to define sexual dimorphism and inter-population variation in size and shape. ResultsSexual dimorphism existed in all cephalometric data except the cephalic index. The measurements comparisonin ethnicities showed that only (eu–eu) differs significantly between the two groups, which is 2,253 mm less in the Arab population compared to the Lur population (P value = 0.022). The cephalic index in males and females was found to be 73.66 and 75.08, respectively. Accordingly, 53.99% were dolichocephalic, 30.06% were mesocephalic, 14.11% were brachycephalic, and 1.84% were hyperbrachycephalic. The shape of the head had no relation to ethnicity but was related to sex (P value = 0.045). Conclusion: It is shown that cephalometric data can be used as diagnostic criteria to determine sex and ethnicity in the southwest Iranian population. It should be further verified on a greater sample size that evaluates more study age distribution.

Morphometric Analysis of Orbital Cavity in South Indian Population

Introduction: Each orbital cavity is actually meant as a socket for the eyeball. The human orbit is a complicated anatomic area, which performs predominant position in the craniofacial complex.
 Aim: The aim of the study is to provide the normal reference orbital parameters for the south Indian population.
 Materials and Methods: The present study has adopted 30 south Indian dry skulls. An orbital cavity was measured using vernier callipers. With the help of vernier calliper and ruler, the measurements such as length, breadth of the orbital cavity and biorbital breadth, interorbital breadth of the orbital cavity were measured. The paired t-test is the statistical method used in this study.
 Results: The mean orbital breadth of the right orbit is 34.6±1.777 and left orbit was 34.701±1.711
 The mean orbital height of the right orbit is 33.417±1.494 and the left orbit is 33.38±1.560. The mean biorbital breadth of the orbital cavity is 94.16 ± 2.533 and means interorbital breadth of the orbital cavity is 20.615±1.172. Paired t test demonstrated no significant statistical difference between the right and left orbit.
 Conclusion: The orbital cavity additionally used for determination of sex and ethnic courses of a cadaver and its phase of the cranium that posses manipulate over sexual dimorphic traits.

Age-Related Changes in Orbits of Ancient Children from Zaghunluq Cemetery in Xinjiang, China

Thirty-eight skull samples of ancient children were analyzed that were excavated from the Zaghunluq cemetery, which dates between 2600 and 1900 cal yr BP. The orbit features of children during age changes and growth spurt periods were explored by comparing the orbital height, orbital breadth, orbital area, orbital index, and other measurements among different age groups: 2 years, 3–5 years, 6–8 years, 9–11 years, and 12–15 years. The analysis showed significant differences in orbital breadth across the five age groups, while differences in orbital height, orbital area, and orbital index were not significant. The growth spurt period of orbital breadth I was during 3–5 years of age, and the growth spurt period of orbital breadth II occurred during 6–8 years. Notably, the orbital height of a 2-year-old child has reached 92.7% of adult size. This may elucidate changes in the orbits of children due to age in ancient Xinjiang, China.

Orbital dimensions of Maharashtrian population a direct measurement study using dry skulls

Orbital dimensions of Maharashtrian population a direct measurement study using dry skulls - IDJSR- Print ISSN No: - 2394-708X Online ISSN No:- 2278-3784 Article DOI No:- 10.18231/j.idjsr.2019.025, International Dental Journal of Student's Research-Int Dent J Stud Res

Age-Related Changes in Orbits of Ancient Children from Zaghunluq Cemetery in Xinjiang, China.

Thirty-eight skull samples of ancient children were analyzed that were excavated from the Zaghunluq cemetery, which dates between 2600 and 1900 cal yr BP. The orbit features of children during age changes and growth spurt periods were explored by comparing the orbital height, orbital breadth, orbital area, orbital index, and other measurements among different age groups: 2 years, 3-5 years, 6-8 years, 9-11 years, and 12-15 years. The analysis showed significant differences in orbital breadth across the five age groups, while differences in orbital height, orbital area, and orbital index were not significant. The growth spurt period of orbital breadth I was during 3-5 years of age, and the growth spurt period of orbital breadth II occurred during 6-8 years. Notably, the orbital height of a 2-year-old child has reached 92.7% of adult size. This may elucidate changes in the orbits of children due to age in ancient Xinjiang, China.

Is cranial multi-detector computed tomography imaging valuable for stature estimation in Egyptian population?

Background and objectivesStature estimation is an initial and essential component of any medico-legal investigations. However, it becomes more challenging when only skull remains are available. So, the goal of this study is to assess stature estimation using cranial multi-detector computed tomography (MDCT) images in a sample of the Egyptian population.MethodsThis clinical study was conducted on 150 Egyptian subjects underwent cranium MDCT with age ranged from 21 to 60 years. The measurements used were maximum cranial breadth, minimum frontal breadth, upper facial breadth, bizygomatic breadth, orbital height, orbital breadth, parietal chord, bimastoidale, maximum cranial length, basion-bregma height, cranial base length, and basion-prosthion length.ResultsThe results revealed that stature and craniofacial measurements of males were significantly higher than those of females, all measurements were significantly positively correlated with stature in pooled cases, but the correlation coefficient differs in separate sex. Simple linear regression for stature estimation showed that the least standard error of estimate (SEE) values for the regression equations obtained when using bizygomatic breadth in pooled cases (7.9 cm) and in males only (5.7 cm), while in females using parietal chord had the least SEE (6.8 cm). Using multiple and stepwise regression analysis reported lower SEE values than simple linear regression analysis.ConclusionOn the basis of this study, it is concluded that the cranial measurements obtained from MDCT images have limited utility in stature estimation among Egyptians, but could be used as an alternative method in cases where the best predictors, such as long bones, are not available.

Discriminant function analysis of craniometric traits for sexual dimorphism and its implication in forensic anthropology

Introduction: Determination of sex from bony elements is the fundamental step to human virtue. Scholars agree highly accurate sex identification can be done from adult skulls. Direct assessment of the bones is not always the most appropriate or practical. Medical advances have provided cross-sectional slices of scanned individuals in the form of computed tomography (CT). The aim of the present study was to examine the reliability of cranial measurements for sex differences in CT head scan records of adult live subjects to the highest possible percentage in South Indians and to develop discriminant function equations. Material and Methods: Seventy head CT records were taken and 16 parameters were measured using RadiAnt DICOM viewer software. Statistical analysis was performed using descriptive statistics, Student's t-test, and discriminant function analysis. Results: The classification accuracy obtained by multivariate analysis of all 16 variables was 97.1%, multivariate analysis of nine most significant variables was 91.4% and by stepwise was 92.9% and that by univariate analysis for bizygomatic breadth, orbital breadth, basion-bregma height, and inter-orbital breadth was 81.4%, 74.3%, 72.9%, and 70%, respectively. Discussion and Conclusion: Multivariate analysis gave the highest classification accuracy and bizygomatic breadth, orbital breadth, basion-bregma height, and inter-orbital breadth were the most dimorphic variables in the study population and several other populations, and thereby should always be considered in the sex determination of humans. The study derived specific discriminant functions for sex determination in the South Indian population, providing a population-specific data for sex determination using craniometric parameters in the South Indian population and for future studies on skeletalized remains.

A comparative study of orbital morphometry in dry skulls of a district in West Bengal

Background: Bony orbit which lodges visual apparatus is a very important area for anthropologists, anatomist, forensic experts, as well as surgeons. Orbital diameters vary according to race, age, sex, food habits, climate, etc. Objectives: The objectives of this study were to provide data regarding different orbital parameters in West Bengal population and also establish gender variation. Materials and Methods: This study involved 100 dry skulls (70 males and 30 females) from the Department of Anatomy, Burdwan Medical College, West Bengal. Orbital height (OH) and orbital breadth (OB) have been taken of both the right and left orbit in male and female skulls. Orbital index (OI) was calculated by OH/OB*100. All these measurements were taken by Vernier caliper. Results: Mean Orbital height in male 32.46 mm. (right), 31.86 mm.(left), in female 29.13 mm. (right), 32.57 mm. (left). Mean Orbital breadth in male 39.14 mm. (right), 38.77 mm. (left), in female 38.33 mm. (right.), 38.67 mm.(left). Orbital index in male was 82.93 mm.(right), 82.17 mm.(left), in female 76 mm.(right), 84.23 mm.(left). While comparing the right- and left-sided orbit in same skull, the OH is measured as 30.83 and 31.43 in the right and left side, respectively, OB 38.81 (rt.) and 38.75 (lt.) and OI remains 80.87 (rt.) and 81.05 (lt.) which categorizes the skulls to be microseme type. Conclusion: Our study shows that the left orbit and male orbit have higher values in comparison to the right orbit and female orbit. This study also states that the West Bengal population falls under microseme category of skull classification. It is suggested to do further studies in different districts of West Bengal to get unbiased solid database.

Morphometric indicators of a facial skull of the Podontsovya population of 8th-14th centuries.

Background. Formation of the anthropological quantitative anatomy data is an important issue which allows obtaining rates and features of physical parameters of anatomic norm in different generations, anatomic features of similarity of population groups, etc. Research objective is to ascertain values of morphometric indicators of skull front department at the Podontsovya population in the 8-14th centuries and features of their variability in the general sample and by sex. Methods. Research was conducted with use of photogrammetry at 63 passported skulls form archeological collections (32 male and 31 female, all skulls belong to the mature age period) with further processing of the obtained data by methods of descriptive statistics and the correlation analysis. Verification of the obtained data on normality was made with use of criterion χ2. The assessment of distinctions between means of each indicator by sex was carried out with use of Student's t-criterion. Results. Means and confidence interval in samples of cranial height (122,7±2,2 mm), length (156,1±2,6 mm) and breadth (126,4±2,2 mm), orbital breadth (37,4±0,8 mm) and height (32,4±0,6 mm), nose breadth (23,9±0,4 mm) and height (49,5±1,2 mm), upper facial height (67,0±1,4 mm), malar diameter (119,7±2,6 mm) and symotical index (8,4±0,4 mm) as well as minimum and maximum value of these indicators in a population, skewness, kurtosis, variation coefficient were ascertained. Existence of sexual dimorphism on indicators of height of a skull, height of a nose, malar diameter and symotical index is ascertained. Existence of strong correlation in the general sample between indicators of a nose height and upper facial height (r = 0,73), moderate correlation between the malar diameter and cranial breadth (r = 0,68), malar diameter and orbital breadth (r = 0,65), malar diameter and nose breadth and height (r = 0,57), nose height and orbital breadth (r = 0,53), malar diameter and upper facial height (r = 0,52). Lack of reliable distinctions between correlation indicators for statistically significant correlations at men and women is noted. Conclusions. Using obtained data about the population of Podontsovya in the 8-14th centuries for comparative anatomical and anthropological researches has to be carried out taking into account features of their variability and the revealed sexual dimorphism. The received results of the correlation analysis are can be considered as autocorrelation.

Orbital indices in a modern Sinhalese Sri Lankan population

Objectives: An understanding of orbital morphology is relevant to forensic identification, craniofacial surgery, and anthropological analysis. Orbital index (OI), the relationship between the height and width of the orbit, varies between different populations of humans. This study examines modern Sinhalese Sri Lankan skulls to determine normal values for OI and explore how OI may vary with laterality and sex. Methods: Measurements of fifty modern Sinhalese Sri Lankan skulls (origin Central Province, Sri Lanka) of known sex (34 male and 16 female) were undertaken for orbital height and width (bilaterally) using a digital caliper. OI was calculated using a standard formula ([orbital breadth / orbital height] × 100). Statistical tests analysing OI and size for both sex and laterality were performed using unpaired and paired 2-tailed t-tests (p 89) orbits, therefore challenging previous assumptions on ethnic OI norms.

Assessment of sex in a modern Turkish population using cranial anthropometric parameters.

The utilization of radiological imaging methods in anthropometric studies is being expanded by the application of modern imaging methods, leading to a decrease in costs, a decrease in the time required for analysis and the ability to create three-dimensional images. This retrospective study investigated 400 patients within the 18-45-years age group (mean age: 30.7±11.2years) using cranial computed tomography images. We measured 14 anthropometric parameters (basion-bregma height, basion-prosthion length, maximum cranial length and cranial base lengths, maximum cranial breadth, bizygomatic diameter, upper facial breadth, bimastoid diameter, orbital breadth, orbital length, biorbital breadth, interorbital breadth, foramen magnum breadth and foramen magnum length) of cranial measurements. The intra- and inter-observer repeatability and consistency were good. From the results of logistic regression analysis using morphometric measurements, the most conspicuous measurements in terms of dimorphism were maximum cranial length, bizygomatic diameter, basion-bregma height, and cranial base length. The most dimorphic structure was the bizygomatic diameter with an accuracy rate of 83% in females and 77% in males. In this study, 87.5% of females and 87.0% of males were classified accurately by this model including four parameters with a sensitivity of 91.5% and specificity of 85.0%. In conclusion, CT cranial morphometric analysis may be reliable for the assessment of sex in the Turkish population and is recommended for comparison of data of modern populations with those of former populations. Additionally, cranial morphometric data that we obtained from modern Turkish population may reveal population specific data, which may help current criminal investigations and identification of disaster victims.

A study of cranial variations based on craniometric indices in a South Indian population.

Human skull has been the most extensively studied bone for establishing the taxonomies at evolutionary levels. Crania are also the most commonly used skeletal elements in population studies because they are known to be more genetically driven and less affected by environmental factors. The craniofacial indices are considered as clinical anthropometric parameters used in the investigation of craniofacial skeletal deformities and brain development. The present research is an attempt to study the cranial indices in the South Indian population. The sample for the study included 118 dry adult crania. All the osteometric measurements were taken using standard anthropometric instruments, and 3 indices, namely, cranial index, orbital index (OI), and index of foreman magnum (FMI), were calculated. Cranial index is calculated as (maximum cranial breadth / maximum cranial length) × 100, OI as (orbital height / orbital breadth) × 100, and FMI as (transverse diameter / anteroposterior diameter) × 100. The crania were further classified based on these indices. The cranial index ranged between 66.67 and 85.71 (mean, 78.57 [SD, 4.11]), the OI ranged between 68.89 and 102.63 (mean, 84.23 [SD, 6.64]), and the FMI ranged between 68.57 and 96.88 (mean, 79.71 [SD, 6.98]). Cranial index did not show any significant correlation with the OI (r = -0.162, P = 0.081) or the FMI (r = -0.045, P = 0.626). A statistically significant correlation was, however, observed between OI and FMI (r = -0.232, P = 0.012). The current study developed population-specific classification of crania using cranial indices. This craniometric baseline data pertaining to the craniofacial indices may be useful in presurgical planning and the postsurgical evaluation. It may also assist the forensic anthropologists in the categorization of human skulls, which may be an important component in identification of highly decomposed dead bodies and skeletal remains. More such studies need to be conducted to understand the effect of environment and genetics on the cranial shapes in different population groups.

Accuracy and reliability of measurements obtained from computed tomography 3D volume rendered images

Forensic pathologists commonly use computed tomography (CT) images to assist in determining the cause and manner of death as well as for mass disaster operations. Even though the design of the CT machine does not inherently produce distortion, most techniques within anthropology rely on metric variables, thus concern exists regarding the accuracy of CT images reflecting an object's true dimensions. Numerous researchers have attempted to validate the use of CT images, however the comparisons have only been conducted on limited elements and/or comparisons were between measurements taken from a dry element and measurements taken from the 3D-CT image of the same dry element.A full-body CT scan was performed prior to autopsy at the Office of the Chief Medical Examiner for the State of Maryland. Following autopsy, the remains were processed to remove all soft tissues and the skeletal elements were subject to an additional CT scan. Percent differences and Bland–Altman plots were used to assess the accuracy between osteometric variables obtained from the dry skeletal elements and from CT images with and without soft tissues. An additional seven crania were scanned, measured by three observers, and the reliability was evaluated by technical error of measurement (TEM) and relative technical error of measurement (%TEM).Average percent differences between the measurements obtained from the three data sources ranged from 1.4% to 2.9%. Bland–Altman plots illustrated the two sets of measurements were generally within 2mm for each comparison between data sources. Intra-observer TEM and %TEM for three observers and all craniometric variables ranged between 0.46mm and 0.77mm and 0.56% and 1.06%, respectively. The three-way inter-observer TEM and %TEM for craniometric variables was 2.6mm and 2.26%, respectively. Variables that yielded high error rates were orbital height, orbital breadth, inter-orbital breadth and parietal chord. Overall, minimal differences were found among the data sources and high accuracy was noted between the observers, which prove CT images are an acceptable source to collect osteometric variables.

Prenatal ontogeny of subspecific variation in the craniofacial morphology of the Japanese macaque (Macaca fuscata)

We cross-sectionally investigated prenatal ontogeny of craniofacial shape in the two subspecies of the Japanese macaque (Macaca fuscata fuscata and Macaca fuscata yakui) using a geometric morphometric technique to explore the process of morphogenetic divergence leading to the adult morphological difference between the subspecies. The sample comprised a total of 32 formalin-fixed fetal specimens of the two subspecies, in approximately the second and third trimesters. Each fetal cranium was scanned using computed tomography to generate a three-dimensional surface model, and 68 landmarks were digitized on the external and internal surface of each cranium to trace the growth-related changes in craniofacial shape of the two subspecies. The results of our study demonstrated that the two subspecies generally shared the same craniofacial growth pattern. Both crania tend to exhibit relative contraction of the neurocranium in the mediolateral and superoinferior directions, a more superiorly positioned cranial base, a more vertically oriented occipital squama, and a more anteriorly positioned viscerocranium as the cranial size increased. However, distinctive subspecific differences, for example relatively narrower orbital breadth, higher orbit, higher position of the nuchal crest, and more protrudent snout found in Macaca fuscata yakui were already present during the prenatal period. This study demonstrated that morphological differentiation in the craniofacial shape may occur at a very early stage of the fetal period even between closely related subspecies of the Japanese macaque.

THE ETHNIC HISTORY OF MEDIEVAL NOVGOROD (BASED ON CRANIOMETRIC DATA)

Cranial series from cemeteries on the territory of the medieval Novgorod Republic were subjected to multivariate analysis. Northwestern Russia is the region where important population changes occurred in the early 2nd millennium AD. As a rule, earlier groups (11th – early 13th centuries) are dolichocranic and exhibit a sharp horizontal facial profile. In those series whose lower chronological limit is 11th–12th centuries, diachronic morphological changes can be traced. In later groups (13th–14th centuries), the cranial index is higher than in earlier ones (11th – early 13th centuries), whereas cranial height and nasal protrusion angle decrease, and the orbits become narrower. Series from the 13th– 16th century cemeteries apparently attest to an admixture. A combination of traits, correlated mostly at the between- group level (orbital breadth, nasal height, and nasal prominence angle), points to the presence of two components. This combination separates early and late Novgorod groups, at the same time opposing neighboring non-Slavic populations. While early groups (11th–13th centuries) resemble the 10th–18th century Balts, late ones (late 13th – early 20th centuries) resemble various Finnic groups of the same period.

Morphometric variation of the skull during postnatal development in the Lowland European bisonBison bonasus bonasus

We studied the variation of linear measurements and skull capacity in Lowland European bisonBison bonasus bonasus (Linnaeus, 1758) during postnatal development, and the dependencies of the parameters in relation to sex, age, and body mass of the animals. Material consisted of 599 bison skulls (310 males and 289 females), within the age range of 1 month to 21 years (males) and to 27 years (females). In the group of calves to 1 year old, no sex connected differences in skull measurements were observed, whereas the skull capacity in older calves was significantly larger (0.01>p>0.001) in males than in females. From the third year of life, most skull measurements display characteristics of sexual dimorphism. Skull development in both sexes is most intensive during the first three years of life, and slows from the age of 5. In older individuals of both sexes (≥ 6 years), orbital breadth continues growing and, in females, breadth of splanchnocranium continues increasing. Growth in a bison’s skull capacity is most intensive up to the third year of life and slows from the age of 5. During postnatal development, a bison skull grows proportionally except the neurocranium, which grows slightly slower in comparison with basal length and its development finishes earlier than that of splanchnocranium. In ontogenesis, a bison skull grows much slower compared to body mass. In relation to body mass, skull capacity and the height of neurocranium grow most slowly while orbital breadth grows most intensively. The results obtained were compared with data on skull sizes of bison born in 1930–1950 and bred in captivity and with skulls of the American bisonBison bison. Inbreeding is probably responsible for some types of phenotypic abnormalities in the skull which appear in modern European bison.

Temporal variation and interaction between nutritional and developmental instability in prehistoric Japanese populations

We examined nutritional and developmental instability in prehistoric Japan, using data from 49 individuals across 13 archaeological sites. Hypoplasia incidence was used as a measure of nutritional stress, and fluctuating asymmetry (of upper facial breath, orbital breadth, and orbital height) as an indirect assessment of developmental instability. Abundant resources due to a stable climate during the Middle Jomon (5,000-3,000 BP) encouraged population growth, which led to regional cultural homogeneity and complexity. A population crash on Honshu in the Late/Final Jomon (roughly 4,000-2,000 BP) led to regionally divergent subsistence economies and settlement patterns. We find that the nutritional stress was consistent between periods, but developmental instability (DI) decreased in the Late/Final Jomon. While the DI values were not statistically significant, the higher values for Middle Jomon may result from sedentism, social stratification, and differential access to resources. On Hokkaido, Jomon culture persisted until the Okhotsk period (1,000-600 BP), marked by the arrival of immigrants from Sakhalin. Nutritional stress was consistent between Middle and Late/Final Jomon, but DI increased in the Late/Final. Nutritional and developmental instability decreased from Late/Final to Okhotsk, suggesting a positive immigrant effect. We expected to find an association between stress markers due to the synergistic relationship between nutrition and pathology. The data support this hypothesis, but only one finding was statistically significant. While high critical values from small sample sizes place limits on the significance of our results, we find that the impact of environmental and cultural change to prehistoric Japanese populations was minimal.

Sexual Dimorphism in Skulls of the Lowland European Bison,Bison Bonasus Bonasus

The research was conducted on 600 (311 male and 289 female) European bison skulls of the Lowland line collected between 1967 and 2006. The specimens came from the bison breeding centre in Białowieza (n = 67) and from the free-ranging population of the Polish part of the Białowieza Forest (n = 533). Two indices best differentiating male and female skulls were selected: one being the quotient of the orbital breadth EctEct and the length of the splanchnocranium StP, the second being the quotient of the neurocranium length BSt and the basal skull length BP. Using these indices we constructed an equation which produced negative values for females and positive values for males; 223 (74%) of the male skulls produced positive values consistent with sex, and 82 (26%) produced negative values, indicating female features. Those features were present mainly in skulls of young males (< 4 years old). 230 (80%) of the female skulls had shapes typical of the female sex, whereas 59 (20%) displayed male features.

The Etruscan skulls of the Rostock anatomical collection — How do they compare with the skeletal findings of the first thousand years B.C.?

Seven Etruscan skulls were found in Corneto Tarquinia in the years 1881 and 1882 and were given as present to Rostock's anatomical collection in 1882. The origin of the Etruscans who were contemporary with the Celts is not yet clear; according to Herodotus they had emigrated from Lydia in Asia Minor to Italy. To fit the Etruscan skulls into an ethnological grid they were compared with skeletal remains of the first thousand years B.C. E. All skulls were found to be male; their age ranged from 20 to 60 years, with an average age of about thirty. A comparison of the median sagittal outlines of the Etruscan skulls and the contemporary Hallstatt-Celtic skulls from North Bavaria showed that the former were shorter and lower. Maximum skull length, minimum frontal breadth, ear bregma height, bizygomatical breadth and orbital breadth of the Etruscan skulls were statistically significantly less developed compared to Hallstatt-Celtics from North Bavaria. In comparison to other contemporary skeletal remains the Etruscan skulls had no similarities in common with Hallstatt-Celtic skulls from North Bavaria and Baden-Württemberg but rather with Hallstatt-Celtic skulls from Hallstatt in Austria. Compared to chronologically adjacent skeletal remains the Etruscan skulls did not show similarities with Early Bronze Age skulls from Moravia but with Latène-Celtic skulls from Manching in South Bavaria. Due to the similarities of the Etruscan skulls with some Celtic skulls from South Bavaria and Austria, it seems more likely that the Etruscans were original inhabitants of Etruria than immigrants.

Spiral computed tomographic study of a pre-Ptolemaic Egyptian mummy

We studied an Egyptian mummy housed in the Otago Museum, Dunedin, New Zealand. Radiocarbon dating indicates that the age of the mummy is 2,358 BP, which is the period of the 30th Dynasty of Nakhthorhebe. Serial CT scans show that the heart had been removed, which is unusual among Egyptian mummies. In contrast, the brain had been left in situ. The orbital breadth suggests a degree of hypertelorism, being at the upper limit of the values recorded for ancient Egyptian males. There is extensive dental disease with excessive tooth wear and tooth loss, typical of Egyptian mummies. The wrapping material, examined under SEM, is probably a linen textile with a selvage.