Aratinga Canicularis Research Articles

Pathological findings and their association with diseases of captive psittacine birds native to Mexico

The captivity and use of native psittacine birds is prohibited in Mexico. However, as these birds are among the groups most affected by illegal trafficking, they are commonly found as companion animals. Nevertheless, it is difficult to obtain information on their health. Therefore, a retrospective study was conducted of the clinical histories and necropsy reports of native psittacines that had been submitted to the Bird Disease Diagnostic and Research Laboratory of the Facultad de Medicina Veterinaria y Zootecnia, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, from 2006 to 2017. The lesions were classified according to type and anatomical location and the diseases were classified as infectious or non-infectious. During this period, 252 psittacines were submitted, the most frequent of which were the red-lored parrot (Amazona autumnalis), orange-fronted parakeet (Eupsittula canicularis) and scarlet macaw (Ara macao). The lesions were primarily located in the digestive and respiratory systems. By integrating the clinical histories and post-mortem findings, we concluded that nutritional disorders were the most frequent non-infectious diseases, systemic bacterial infections were the most frequent infectious conditions, the primary parasite was Sarcocystis spp and the most frequent neoplasm was multicentric lymphoma.

FIRST RECORD OF A CYANISTIC (BLUE) PLUMAGE ABNORMALITY IN ORANGE-FRONTED PARAKEETS EUPSITTULA CANICULARIS IN MEXICO

Pigmentary coloration in bird plumage involves several pigment types. In addition, Psittacidae species (parrots and allied) synthetize their own yellow pigment, psittacin (psittacofulvin), which is normally present in green feathers. The inability to synthetize psittacine, due to a gene mutation, results in a cyanistic —or blue— plumage phenotype. We present the first record of a cyanistic (blue) abnormality in the plumage of the Orange-fronted Parakeet Eupsittula canicularis in Mexico. Two young blue parakeets were removed from their nest in 2023 and kept as pets. Both birds lacked the typical green coloration and displayed extensive blue plumage on the entire body. The frequency of psittacin mutations in wild Psittacidae populations is unknown, but the alleles involved must be quite rare. Further studies are needed to understand the biology and ecology of the species in relation to possible population declines that could potentially increase the homozygous frequency for the recessive blue allele.

Foraging ecology of the bird Eupsittula canicularis (Psittaciformes: Psittacidae) in a modified Mexican landscape

Introduction: Seasonal phenological variations in tropical forests cause changes in food resource availability. Animals use foraging strategies to follow the food supply in these settings. The Orange-fronted Parakeet (Eupsittula canicularis) mainly inhabits the tropical dry forest of the Mexican Pacific to Northwest Costa Rica, although little is known about its diet and foraging strategies. Objective: To assess spatial variability in food resource abundance, diet, and foraging behavior of the Orange-fronted Parakeet in a modified landscape in Oaxaca Coast, Mexico. Methods: 30 phenology transects (200 × 6 m) were established during the dry season (February-June 2019) to measure food resource availability in primary deciduous, semi-deciduous, and secondary forests. The Orange-fronted Parakeets diet was determined by focal foraging observations, and dietary niche breadth and resource selection were considered to determine feeding strategies. Results: Orange-fronted Parakeets fed on fruits (42.3 %), seeds (29.3 %), and flowers (28.4 %) of 13 plant species and presented a broad dietary niche breadth with a higher frequency of foraging in primary forest. The Orange-fronted Parakeets select resources and adapt their foraging strategies based on food resource availability in each habitat. Conclusions: The study findings highlights the need to maintain the complete forest structure in a modified landscape to ensure food resources availability for Orange-fronted Parakeets during the breeding season.

Estimating the population size of orange-fronted parakeets (Cyanoramphus malherbi) on offshore islands of New Zealand

ABSTRACT Determining the size of translocated populations of endemic New Zealand species is essential for assessing their management requirements; however generating estimates can be constrained by the accessibility of sites, particularly for cryptic or difficult to monitor species released on remote islands. In this study, we aimed to produce estimates of population size for three translocated populations of the critically endangered orange-fronted parakeet (Cyanoramphus malherbi), after a mean establishment period of 6.3 years. We also recorded natural history notes of the species. Using fixed-point distance sampling, we assessed the populations established on Te Kākahu-o-Tamatea / Chalky Island, Te Pākeka / Maud Island, and Oruawairua / Blumine Island. We confirmed the presence of orange-fronted parakeets on Te Kākahu-o-Tamatea / Chalky Island but could not produce density estimates due to a small number of detections. We did not detect orange-fronted parakeets on Te Pākeka / Maud Island. On Oruawairua / Blumine Island, based on 20 detections, we estimated a population of 193 ± 91 parakeets distributed through the mature forest of the 3.77 km2 island. Our findings indicate that Oruawairua / Blumine Island sustains a significant population of the critically endangered orange-fronted parakeet. To assess the long-term trends of the species on offshore islands, further population assessments are needed.

Follow the leader? Orange-fronted conures eavesdrop on conspecific vocal performance and utilise it in social decisions

Animals regularly use social information to make fitness-relevant decisions. Particularly in social interactions, social information can reduce uncertainty about the relative quality of conspecifics, thus optimising decisions on with whom and how to interact. One important resource for individuals living in social environments is the production of information by signalling conspecifics. Recent research has suggested that some species of parrots engage in affiliative contact call matching and that these interactions may be available to conspecific unintended receivers. However, it remains unclear what information third parties may gain from contact call matching and how it can be utilised during flock decisions. Here, using a combined choice and playback experiment, we investigated the flock fusion choices and vocal behaviour of a social parrot species, the orange-fronted conure (Eupsittula canicularis), to a contact call matching interaction between two individuals of different sexes and with different vocal roles. Our results revealed that orange-fronted conures chose to follow vocal leaders more often than vocal followers during fusions. Furthermore, flocks responded with higher call rates and matched the stimulus calls closer when subsequently choosing a vocal leader. Interestingly, orange-fronted conures also showed higher contact call rates and closer matches when choosing males over females. These results suggest that paying attention to conspecific contact call interactions can provide individuals with social information that can be utilised during fission and fusion events, significantly influencing the social dynamics of orange-fronted conures.

Genealogical relationship inference to identify areas of intensive poaching of the Orange-fronted Parakeet (Eupsittula canicularis)

BackgroundThe Orange-fronted Parakeet (Eupsittula canicularis) is the Mexican psittacine that is most captured for the illegal pet trade. However, as for most wildlife exploited by illegal trade, the genetic diversity that is extracted from species and areas of intensive poaching is unknown. In this study, we analyzed the genetic diversity of 80 E. canicularis parakeets confiscated from the illegal trade and estimated the level of extraction of genetic diversity by poaching using the mitochondrial DNA sequences of cytochrome b (Cytb). In addition, we analyzed the genealogical and haplotypic relationships of the poached parakeets and sampled wild populations in Mexico, as a strategy for identifying the places of origin of poached parakeets.ResultsPoached parakeets showed high haplotype diversity (Hd = 0.842) and low nucleotide diversity (Pi = 0.00182). Among 22 haplotypes identified, 18 were found exclusively in 37 individuals, while four were detected in the remaining 43 individuals and shared with the wild populations. A rarefaction and extrapolation curve revealed that 240 poached individuals can include up to 47 haplotypes and suggested that the actual haplotype richness of poached parakeets is higher than our analyses indicate. The geographic locations of the four haplotypes shared between poached and wild parakeets ranged from Michoacan to Sinaloa, Mexico. However, the rare haplotypes detected in poached parakeets were derived from a recent genetic expansion of the species that has occurred between the northwest of Michoacan and the coastal region of Colima, Jalisco and southern Nayarit, Mexico.ConclusionsPoached parakeets showed high genetic diversity, suggesting high extraction of the genetic pool of the species in central Mexico. Rarefaction and extrapolation analyses suggest that the actual haplotype richness in poached parakeets is higher than reflected by our analyses. The poached parakeets belong mainly to a very diverse genetic group of the species, and their most likely origin is between northern Michoacan and southern Nayarit, Mexico. We found no evidence that poachers included individuals from Central American international trafficking with individuals from Mexico in the sample.

Assessment of wildlife crime in a high-biodiversity region of Mexico

Wildlife crime, including illegal harvesting, poaching, use, and trade, is a global issue. While studies on wildlife crimes have been performed on a global scale, it is also essential to assess their impact on native species at national scales. Investigating illegal activities involves analyzing law enforcement and seizure data, especially in areas with high biodiversity. In this study, we analyzed the effects of wildlife crime on native wild vertebrates of Oaxaca, southern Mexico, from 2004 to 2018. We used data from law enforcement by Mexican authorities on activities that affect vertebrates: trafficking, illegal possession, exploitation, breaking of hunting laws, permit breaches, and illegal scientific collecting. Oaxaca has a high incidence of wildlife crime, and illegal trading accounts for 38 % of wildlife law violations (62 % are other illegal activities). In addition, 8047 specimens of 226 species were seized during the study period, of which 54 % are considered endangered in Mexico or worldwide. Reptiles accounted for the highest number of individual specimens, while birds recorded the greatest range of species. The main species seized were green iguana (Iguana iguana), black iguana (Ctenosaura pectinata), Morelet's crocodile (Crocodylus moreletii), olive ridley turtle (Lepidochelys olivacea), orange-fronted parakeet (Aratinga canicularis), and white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus). Many of these seizures were made close to roads. Our results support the understanding that illegal trade reports are underestimates. This study allows us to have a greater understanding of the real magnitude of the problem. We hope this research will inform policies and strategies to combat the illegal activities that affect wildlife in regions with high biodiversity.

Function of vocalization length and warble repertoire size in orange-fronted conures

Bird vocalizations consist of songs and calls. The calls tend either to be given singly or to consist of multiple elements given in a rapid string. The multi-element bird calls of some nonpasserines resemble passerine song and can contain many diverse elements. Multi-element vocalizations can change the signal message by varying the number of elements and/or the diversity and selection of element types. The use of multi-element variation has been extensively studied in passerine songs, but only rarely in nonpasserines. Here we examined two multi-element vocalization types in a wild parrot, the orange-fronted conure, Eupsittula canicularis: ‘warbles’ consist of diverse elements (heterotypic) whereas ‘peaches’ consist of repetitions of the same element (homotypic). Both call types are used in aggressive interactions between pairs or flocks. We used playbacks to wild conure flocks in Costa Rica to determine whether the number of elements (both types) and/or the diversity of elements (warble repertoire size) produced differentiable responses. Both short and long peach call series usually elicited retreat, but longer series led to reduced warbling and increased soft contact calls (zip calls) when responses were compared with those of short series. The warble stimuli mainly affected the approach behaviour leaving most call rates unaffected: more flocks left the area in response to long warbles with large repertoires, whereas short, small repertoire stimuli resulted in a closer approach. Both experiments showed that the length of both types of multi-element call and element diversity in warbles are salient to the wild conures. The results suggest that longer series of both call types and higher diversity warbles may be perceived by the birds as more aggressive, leading to the observed patterns of approach, retreat and interaction. The results suggest that vocal complexity in parrots has a signal value similar to that found in passerines.

USE OF PHYLOGENETIC ANALYSIS TO IDENTIFY EVOLUTIONARILY SIGNIFICANT UNITS FOR THE ORANGE-FRONTED PARAKEET (EUPSITTULA CANICULARIS) IN MEXICO

In avian conservation biology, the subspecies concept based on reciprocal monophyly has been successfully applied to define priority populations through Evolutionarily Significant Units (ESUs). In México, the Orange-fronted Parakeet (Eupsittula canicularis) ranks first in illegal parrot trade. Its distribution ranges from southern Sonora to Chiapas on the Pacific slope, with populations representing three subspecies: E. c. canicularis, E. c. eburnirostrum, and E. c. clarae. To identify and propose ESUs to assist in conservation proposals for different populations, we assessed subspecific reciprocal monophyly via phylogenetic analyses and haplotype networks based on the mitochondrial DNA genes cytochrome oxidase I y NADH dehydrogenase 2. Feather and blood samples from specimens collected from nests in 2005 and 2007 were used. A total of five specimens of E. c. eburnirostrum from two localities in the state of Michoacán and four specimens of E. c. clarae from the state of Sinaloa were analyzed and no specimens of E. c. canicularis were included. The analyses included sequences obtained by us and those previously reported for E. aurea, E. cactorum, E. canicularis, E. nana, and E. pertinax. Both the phylogenetic analyses and haplotype networks suggest two groups that correspond to two subspecies of E. canicularis based on morphological and geographical evidence. Therefore these two subspecies are proposed as independent ESUs for conservation purposes.

Aves exóticas en el AICA Humedales de Alvarado, Veracruz, México/ Exotic birds in the IBA Humedales de Alvarado, Veracruz, Mexico

We report records of Eurasian Collared-Dove (Streptopelia decaocto), Monk Parakeet (Myiopsitta monachus), and Orange-fronted Parakeet (Eupsittula canicularis), in the estuaries and floodplains of the Important Bird Area ‘Humedales de Alvarado’, Veracruz, from 2011 to 2014. Both exotic Parakeets were observed in mixed flocks with native Olive-throated Parakeet (Eupsittula nana). These species can out compete for resources with native birds andneed to be monitored. Both S. decaocto and M. monachus are successfulinvaders in many urban areas of Mexico.

Taxonomic status of Cyanoramphus parakeets on the Auckland Islands and implications for the validity of the orange-fronted parakeet as a discrete species

Cyanoramphus parakeets are a key biogeographic element of the Pacific. Many of these parakeets are, however, endangered, with ongoing conservation management hampered by the unresolved taxonomic status of some populations. We used modern and ancient DNA (mitochondrial DNA control region) to assess the taxonomy of the Auckland Islands populations of red-crowned (Cyanoramphus novaezelandiae novaezelandiae) and yellow-crowned (Cyanoramphus auriceps) parakeets. Our analyses show that both red-crowned and yellow-crowned parakeets on the Auckland Islands are nested within the mainland New Zealand diversity of the two species. However, we also found an orange-fronted parakeet (Cyanoramphus malherbi) mitochondrial DNA lineage within the genome of both of these species in the Auckland Islands population. Further sampling of historic orange-fronted parakeet museum skins showed that the orange-fronted morphotype is paraphyletic with respect to mitochondrial haplotype, which is probably caused by hybridisation or incomplete lineage sorting. In light of this, we review and critically assess the taxonomic history of the orange-fronted parakeet, and address whether the species was historically present on the Auckland Islands.

Vocal Imitation in Parrots Allows Addressing of Specific Individuals in a Dynamic Communication Network

Parrots in captivity are known for their ability to vocally imitate humans and recently it has been shown that wild-living orange-fronted conures are able to immediately imitate other individuals’ contact calls. The function of this exceptional ability to imitate remains unclear. However, orange–fronted conures live in fission-fusion flocks where they encounter many different individuals every day, and it is possible that their vocal imitation ability is a flexible means to address a specific individual within a flock. We tested this via playback to short-term captive wild conures. Test birds were placed together in pairs in outdoor aviaries to form simple flocks. To simulate imitation of a specific individual these pairs received playback of contact calls that primarily imitate one of the two birds. Overall, individuals that received simulated vocal imitations of its calls responded more frequently and faster than the other individual. This suggests that orange-fronted conures can use imitations of contact calls to address specific individuals of a flock. In the discussion we argue that the fission-fusion flock dynamics of many parrot species has been an important factor in evolving conures’ and other parrots’ exceptional ability to imitate.

Vocal similarity and familiarity determine response to potential flockmates in orange-fronted conures (Psittacidae)

In social species with fission–fusion dynamics, individuals have the opportunity to recruit other individuals selectively by calling. An individual’s decision to call to another could be determined by previous interactions with that individual, which would require individuals to be able to discriminate others based on their vocalizations and associate knowledge with their vocal identity. Alternatively, this decision may be determined solely by the current interaction. In a playback experiment, we tested the ability of orange-fronted conures, Aratinga canicularis to discriminate between calls of familiar and unfamiliar females. Males were able to discriminate between familiar and unfamiliar calls from different females. Furthermore, test birds seemed to associate experience from the previous interaction with the vocal characteristics of the familiar call, but this result was marginally nonsignificant. The success of the playback in imitating the test bird’s contact call in the current interaction proved important, as high similarity between playback and the test bird’s contact calls elicited a stronger response from it. The importance of call imitation during current interactions probably reflects the fact that orange-fronted conures live in flocks with fission–fusion dynamics and therefore often interact with unfamiliar individuals.

Habitat use and local harvesting practices of the Orange-fronted Parakeet (Aratinga canicularis) in western Mexico

Orange-fronted Parakeets Aratinga canicularis are widespread and common across their range. However, the ecology and habitat use are scarcely known. Observations of the nest site characteristics, diet, flock size, habitat movements, and local harvesting practices are reported in this study for Colima, Mexico, a site where the species occurs year-round. Characteristics of termitaria nest sites in deciduous oak and tropical semi-deciduous forests were compared. Nesting site selection did not differ between vegetation types, but some preference for higher and larger termitaria is suggested. Availability of suitable nesting sites is apparently not a limiting factor. Anecdotal reports from the local people and empirical observations of eggs and hatchlings by the author suggest a three-month extension of the breeding period to what is reported in the literature. A. canicularis was observed foraging on 25 plant species. Flock size and activity increased during the rainy season, and were reduced during the beginning of the dry season. Observations and movement in semi-deciduous vegetation were common throughout the study, coinciding with the presence of constant although scattered fruit availability. People in the community see the harvesting and selling of parakeets as an additional source of income, in particular during the dry season when agricultural-related income activities are at their minimum. However, the associated mortality and nest-site destruction may pose a threat to the species in this region.

Vocal matching by orange-fronted conures (Aratinga canicularis)

The functions of vocal matching have been clarified in territorial songbirds, compositionally stable groups of birds and mammals, and species with multiple alarm or assembly signals. The functions of vocal matching are less well understood in fission/fusion species that are non-territorial, live in groups with variable composition, and lack multiple alarm signals. Here we present the results of interactive playbacks in a fission/fusion parrot species, the orange-fronted conjure (Aratinga canicularis), that provide evidence of vocal matching. A randomly selected loud contact call (chee) per trial was played to passing wild flocks and short-term captives in Costa Rica. Of the trials where subjects interacted, 30% of wild flocks and 21% of captive trials showed significantly linear or curvilinear changes in similarity between the stimulus and response chees over the course of the trial. Surprisingly, both convergent and divergent sequences were observed, and many trials lacking a single trend showed disjunct changes in stimulus-response similarity. These results suggest that chee exchanges prior to flock fusions are not simply an exchange of greetings but are more likely some form of negotiation. This would explain the presence of convergent, divergent, and variable patterns of stimulus-response similarity seen in our experiments.

Availability and selection of arboreal termitaria as nest‐sites by Orange‐fronted Parakeets Aratinga canicularis in conserved and modified landscapes in Mexico

Few studies have investigated the use of termitaria by nesting parrots, or how this may be affected by habitat transformation. We determined selection of termitaria by nesting Orange‐fronted Parakeets Aratinga canicularis, and evaluated the effect of habitat transformation on the availability of termitaria nest‐sites for Parakeets in the tropical dry forest of Western Mexico. Availability of termitaria was quantified in 24 survey plots in a factorial design of six 1‐ha plots in each of conserved and modified, deciduous and semi‐deciduous forest. Characteristics of termitaria were determined in survey plots, as well as 21 nest‐termitaria used by Parakeets, and their nearest adjacent termitarium. There was an overall density of 1.6 termitaria/ha suitable for nesting by Parakeets, which did not differ between habitats, although only 8% of apparently suitable termitaria were occupied by nesting Parakeets. However, termitaria in conserved semi‐deciduous forest were significantly higher above the ground, and termitaria in conserved deciduous forest were significantly smaller in volume. In the modified landscape, termitaria were significantly lower and their volume significantly larger than in conserved landscapes. Termitaria used by nesting parrots were at a significantly greater height above the ground than the nearest adjacent termitaria. Termitarium volume did not reliably predict the likelihood of nest‐site selection, although Parakeets only used termitaria between 15 and 150 l. Parakeets nesting in modified habitats used termitaria at a significantly lower height than Parakeets nesting in conserved habitat. It is unclear whether this represents a decline in nest‐site quality in modified habitats, which could affect reproductive success of Parakeet populations in fragmented landscapes.

Rapid vocal convergence in an Australian cockatoo, the galah Eolophus roseicapillus

There are several mechanisms for producing vocalizations that are similar to those of a conspecific, including song type matching during a vocal contest, group convergence on a signature call over time, or one-to-one matching of another individual's signature call. A novel category of conspecific matching has been described in a parrot, the orange-fronted conure, Aratinga canicularis, which shows rapid and directional modification of vocalizations over the course of a single vocal interaction. We examined whether a geographically and phylogenetically distant parrot, the galah, Eolophus roseicapillus, uses similar rapid call modifications during contact call exchanges, and sought to better define the conditions under which wild parrots directionally modify their contact calls. In each trial, we interactively broadcast a single call exemplar recorded from wild galahs and recorded the vocal responses of nearby galahs. Temporal parameters of response calls converged on the stimulus over the course of an interaction. Frequency measures also showed convergence, although this effect was less pronounced. Male galahs were more vocally responsive overall, and birds tended to converge more closely on male stimuli over the course of an interaction. This experiment confirms that other parrots, in this case galahs, are capable of rapid, directional call modification, and we suggest that this vocal technique may be an efficient mechanism for mediating the fission–fusion social system that is characteristic of many parrot species.

Notes on the diet of the critically endangered orange–fronted parakeet (Cyanoramphus malherbi) on Maud Island

We conducted opportunistic observations on the diet of translocated orange-fronted parakeets (Cyanoramphus malherbi) on Maud Island to provide a first account of the diversity of food types ingested in the wild by this critically endangered species. Orange-fronted parakeets consumed fruits and leaves of 14 plant species as well as non–dietary items such as bark sticks and grit. Of dietary items, 96% were on plant species and 4% invertebrates. Of the plant species ingested 10% were non-natives. A major dietary component consisted of fruits and leaves of mahoe (Melicytus ramiflorus). In contrast to the only other published account of the diet of orange-fronted parakeets, invertebrates constituted a minor part of identified ingested items. This may be related to the different composition of vegetation at the study sites, the low parakeet population density during the time of our study and methodological restrictions during our survey. Our observations on undocumented food items add information about the biology of New Zealands’ rarest parakeet species and indicate dietary flexibility of the species highlighting the potential of other regenerating islands as release sites to expand the geographic distribution of orange–fronted parakeets.

The function of double chees in orange-fronted conures (Aratinga canicularis; Psittacidae)

Orange-fronted conures use individually distinctive contact calls (chees) to mediate social interactions. During vocal exchanges, individuals are known to imitate each other's contact calls. Chees are most often given singularly, but also occur in doublets, known as double chees. We used interactive playback to assess the function of double chees in imitative contexts. By using stimuli with varying levels of similarity between the chees within a double chee, we found that wild-caught conures held for short periods in an aviary imitate the second chee of the double chee more than the first chee. This suggests that the more relevant information in mediating the exchange is contained in the second chee, and the first serves some alternative function. Double chees do not increase the overall intensity of an interaction, nor do they improve the overall accuracy of imitation. However, double chees may serve a role in signaling and directing changes during chee exchanges.

Sex-specific responses to vocal convergence and divergence of contact calls in orange-fronted conures (Aratinga canicularis)

We investigated the signal function of vocal imitation of contact calls in orange-fronted conures (OFCs; Aratinga canicularis) in Costa Rica. OFCs live in dynamic social systems with frequent flock fusions and fissions. Exchanges of contact calls precede these flock changes. During call exchanges, the similarity between the contact calls of different individuals may either increase (converge) or decrease (diverge). We conducted a playback experiment on wild-caught captive birds in which we simulated convergent, divergent and no-change interaction series with male and female contact calls. OFCs responded differently to convergent and divergent series of contact calls, but only when we considered the sex of the test birds. Males called most in response to convergent series, whereas females demonstrated high calling rates in response to both convergent and divergent interactions. Both sexes responded most to contact calls from the opposite sex, but overall females produced more calls and had shorter latencies to calling than males. These results demonstrate that OFCs can discriminate between male and female contact calls and that subtle changes in contact call structure during interactions have signal function. The stronger overall response to convergent series suggests that convergence of contact calls is an affiliative signal.