Opponent Color Research Articles

A chromatic feature detector in the retina signals visual context changes.

The retina transforms patterns of light into visual feature representations supporting behaviour. These representations are distributed across various types of retinal ganglion cells (RGCs), whose spatial and temporal tuning properties have been studied extensively in many model organisms, including the mouse. However, it has been difficult to link the potentially nonlinear retinal transformations of natural visual inputs to specific ethological purposes. Here, we discover a nonlinear selectivity to chromatic contrast in an RGC type that allows the detection of changes in visual context. We trained a convolutional neural network (CNN) model on large-scale functional recordings of RGC responses to natural mouse movies, and then used this model to search in silico for stimuli that maximally excite distinct types of RGCs. This procedure predicted centre colour opponency in transient suppressed-by-contrast (tSbC) RGCs, a cell type whose function is being debated. We confirmed experimentally that these cells indeed responded very selectively to Green-OFF, UV-ON contrasts. This type of chromatic contrast was characteristic of transitions from ground to sky in the visual scene, as might be elicited by head or eye movements across the horizon. Because tSbC cells performed best among all RGC types at reliably detecting these transitions, we suggest a role for this RGC type in providing contextual information (i.e. sky or ground) necessary for the selection of appropriate behavioural responses to other stimuli, such as looming objects. Our work showcases how a combination of experiments with natural stimuli and computational modelling allows discovering novel types of stimulus selectivity and identifying their potential ethological relevance.

Retinomorphic Color Perception Based on Opponent Process Enabled by Perovskite Bipolar Photodetectors.

The ability to perceive color by the retina can be attributed to both its trichromatic photoreceptors and the antagonistic neural wiring known as the opponent process. While neuromorphic sensors have been shown to demonstrate memory and adaptation capabilities, color perception is still challenging due to the intrinsic lack of spectral selectivity in narrow bandgap semiconductors. Furthermore, research on emulating neural wiring is severely lacking. The combination of halide perovskite materials with a tunable bandgap and a novel bipolar photodetector design emulates the efficiency of the retina in processing color information. The stimuli-responsive material is also responsible for maintaining partial color constancy-an adaptation feature. Leveraging the unique enhancement of color contrasts, an in-sensor data compression and edge detection can also be demonstrated. The color perception, chromatic adaptation, and color contrast enhancement make perovskite bipolar photodetectors a unique example where the sensor and neural wiring can be co-developed in conjunction.

Mathematical Perspectives on Consumer Spending during a Financial Crisis

This paper explores the mathematical dynamics of consumer spending during a financial crisis using opponent process theory (OPT). Traditionally applied in psychology, OPT explains how initial emotional responses are followed by counteracting reactions to restore equilibrium. This study models the short-term boost in consumer spending and subsequent economic adjustments. Utilizing differential equations to represent these processes, this paper provides insights into the interplay between immediate policy effects and longer-term economic consequences. We focus on the United States (US) response to the 2008 Global Financial Crisis in this study. Results show evidence of diminishing response from prolonged stimuli due to demand saturation, resource allocation inefficiencies, and agent adaptation. Monetary stimuli may inflate debt/prices, outweighing benefits, and structural issues persist despite stimuli. Confidence and expectations impact response because perceived ineffectiveness weakens impact over time. Thus, while stimuli can initially boost activity, their sustained impact demands careful consideration of economic dynamics and agents’ responses.

The Incentive-Sensitization Theory of Addiction 30 Years On.

The incentive-sensitization theory (IST) of addiction was first published in 1993, proposing that (a) brain mesolimbic dopamine systems mediate incentive motivation ("wanting") for addictive drugs and other rewards, but not their hedonic impact (liking) when consumed; and (b) some individuals are vulnerable to drug-induced long-lasting sensitization of mesolimbic systems, which selectively amplifies their "wanting" for drugs without increasing their liking of the same drugs. Here we describe the origins of IST and evaluate its status 30 years on. We compare IST to other theories of addiction, including opponent-process theories, habit theories of addiction, and prefrontal cortical dysfunction theories of impaired impulse control. We also address critiques of IST that have been raised over the years, such as whether craving is important in addiction and whether addiction can ever be characterized as compulsive. Finally, we discuss several contemporary phenomena, including the potential role of incentive sensitization in behavioral addictions, the emergence of addiction-like dopamine dysregulation syndrome in medicated Parkinson's patients, the role of attentional capture and approach tendencies, and the role of uncertainty in incentive motivation.

Restoration of cone-circuit functionality in the regenerating adult zebrafish retina

Unlike humans, teleosts like zebrafish exhibit robust retinal regeneration after injury from endogenous stem cells. However, it is unclear if regenerating cone photoreceptors regain physiological function and integrate correctly into post-synaptic circuits. We used two-photon calcium imaging of living adult retina to examine photoreceptor responses before and after light-induced lesions. To assess functional recovery of cones and downstream outer retinal circuits, we exploited color opponency; UV cones exhibit intrinsic Off-response to blue light, but On-response to green light, which depends on feedback signals from outer retinal circuits. Accordingly, we assessed the presence and quality of Off- vs. On-responses and found that regenerated UV cones regain both Off-responses to short-wavelength and On-responses to long-wavelength light within 3months after lesion. Therefore, physiological circuit functionality is restored in regenerated cone photoreceptors, suggesting that inducing endogenous regeneration is a promising strategy for human retinal repair.

The yin and yang of two opponent processes of sleep-wake regulation: Sex-associated differences in the spectral EEG markers of the drives for sleep and wake

ABSTRACT Although objectively measured characteristics of sleep efficiency and quality were found to be better in women than men, women more frequently than men suffer from poor or insufficient or non-restorative sleep. We explored this apparent paradox by testing the sex-associated differences in electroencephalographic (EEG) indicators of two opponent processes of sleep-wake regulation, the drives for sleep and wake. We tried to provide empirical support for the hypothesis that a stronger women’s sleep drive can explain better objective characteristics of sleep quality in women than men, while a stronger women’s wake drive can be an explanation of a higher frequency of sleep-related complaints in women than men. To our knowledge, this was the first attempt to examine the associations of sex with scores on the 1st and 2nd principal components of the EEG spectrum that can serve as objective spectral EEG markers of the opponent drives for sleep and wake, respectively. The particular prediction was that, in women compared to men, not only the 1st principal component score but also the 2nd principal component score could be higher (i.e. both drives could be stronger). In a sample of 80 university students (40 females), the EEG signals were recorded during 160 afternoon napping attempts (50 min or longer). The difference between male and female students in sleep latencies did not reach a statistically significant level. In accordance with our prediction, both principal component scores were found to be higher in female than in male students irrespective of sleep stage. It is likely that the influence of the wake drive is entirely overlooked in the polysomnographic studies due to the predominant contribution of the indicators of the sleep drive to the conventional objective characteristics of sleep quality. Therefore, a stronger women’s sleep drive can be an explanation of women’s better sleep quality in the results of polysomnographic studies. On the other hand, if a stronger women’s wake drive can influence the perception of their sleep quality, this can explain their more frequent sleep-related complaints.

Bidirectional valence coding in amygdala intercalated clusters: A neural substrate for the opponent-process theory of motivation

Processing emotionally meaningful stimuli and eliciting appropriate valence-specific behavior in response is a critical brain function for survival. Thus, how positive and negative valence are represented in neural circuits and how corresponding neural substrates interact to cooperatively select appropriate behavioral output are fundamental questions. In previous work, we identified that two amygdala intercalated clusters show opposite response selectivity to fear- and anxiety-inducing stimuli – negative valence (Hagihara et al., 2021). Here, we further show that the two clusters also exhibit distinctly different representations of stimuli with positive valence, demonstrating a broader role of the amygdala intercalated system beyond fear and anxiety. Together with the mutually inhibitory connectivity between the two clusters, our findings suggest that they serve as an ideal neural substrate for the integrated processing of valence for the selection of behavioral output.

Can an isolated middle-series item make a "Dent" in the bow-shaped serial-position curve of comparative judgments?

Studies have shown that local (e.g., midseries) items' specific properties, including being isolated from rest of the items, can generate a local distinctiveness effect, enhancing the memory performance for the local items in serial recall or absolute judgments. However, this has not been the case in relative (comparative) judgments. For the first time, the present study found a local distinctiveness effect in comparative judgments by using an opposite-gender name for the midseries item in an otherwise uniformly one-gender name serial list. The reasons for the previous studies' failure to produce this effect in comparative judgments and the present study's success in obtaining it were discussed. The implication of the finding for the item/order information opponent-process theories was also suggested.

Analysis of Rock Mass Weathering Grade Using Image Processing Technique

Image processing techniques refer to the process of converting an image into a digital format and then performing various operations on it to extract useful information. In this study, image processing technique has been used to categorize rock masses according to its weathering grades. The pixel values of the sample images were in the form of RGB color space before being converted to CIELAB color space. The conversion uses ° as the illuminant. The value in CIELAB color space represents the green-red opponent colors, with negative values for green and positive values for red. In contrast, the value represents the blue-yellow opponents with negative values for blue and positive values for yellow. From the values of and of the samples, clustering was used to classify the samples. This method will group the and values into seven clusters according to the closest distance between the values and the centroids. The proposed study can differentiate between the rock mass and rejected clusters containing plants and painted numbers on the rock. The painted number is placed in a rejected cluster due to the inability to determine the exact color of the rock, thereby impacting the data accuracy. The results have been discussed, and the rock masses have been categorized based on weathering grade. Several limitations have been identified, such as the presence of shadows in the sample images and the lack of arrangement of outcome images according to their a* and b* values. This research has also been validated and compared with previous studies. The JudGeo software utilized in prior research required human input to manually estimate suitable a* and b* values, whereas the proposed method automatically computes these values during color space conversion of the sample. Additionally, the proposed method can calculate the percentage of each cluster, facilitating the classification of rock mass into its respective weathering grade.Image processing techniques refer to the process of converting an image into a digital format and then performing various operations on it to extract useful information. In this study, image processing technique has been used to categorize rock masses according to its weathering grades. The pixel values of the sample images were in the form of RGB color space before being converted to CIELAB color space. The conversion uses ° as the illuminant. The value in CIELAB color space represents the green-red opponent colors, with negative values for green and positive values for red. In contrast, the value represents the blue-yellow opponents with negative values for blue and positive values for yellow. From the values of and of the samples, clustering was used to classify the samples. This method will group the and values into seven clusters according to the closest distance between the values and the centroids. The proposed study can differentiate between the rock mass and rejected clusters containing plants and painted numbers on the rock. The painted number is placed in a rejected cluster due to the inability to determine the exact color of the rock, thereby impacting the data accuracy. The results have been discussed, and the rock masses have been categorized based on weathering grade. Several limitations have been identified, such as the presence of shadows in the sample images and the lack of arrangement of outcome images according to their a* and b* values. This research has also been validated and compared with previous studies. The JudGeo software utilized in prior research required human input to manually estimate suitable a* and b* values, whereas the proposed method automatically computes these values during color space conversion of the sample. Additionally, the proposed method can calculate the percentage of each cluster, facilitating the classification of rock mass into its respective weathering grade.

Horizontal-cell like Dm9 neurons in Drosophila modulate photoreceptor output to supply multiple functions in early visual processing.

Dm9 neurons in Drosophila have been proposed as functional homologs of horizontal cells in the outer retina of vertebrates. Here we combine genetic dissection of neuronal circuit function, two-photon calcium imaging in Dm9 and inner photoreceptors, and immunohistochemical analysis to reveal novel insights into the functional role of Dm9 in early visual processing. Our experiments show that Dm9 receive input from all four types of inner photoreceptor R7p, R7y, R8p, and R8y. Histamine released from all types R7/R8 directly inhibits Dm9 via the histamine receptor Ort, and outweighs simultaneous histamine-independent excitation of Dm9 by UV-sensitive R7. Dm9 in turn provides inhibitory feedback to all R7/R8, which is sufficient for color-opponent processing in R7 but not R8. Color opponent processing in R8 requires additional synaptic inhibition by R7 of the same ommatidium via axo-axonal synapses and the second Drosophila histamine receptor HisCl1. Notably, optogenetic inhibition of Dm9 prohibits color opponent processing in all types of R7/R8 and decreases intracellular calcium in photoreceptor terminals. The latter likely results from reduced release of excitatory glutamate from Dm9 and shifts overall photoreceptor sensitivity toward higher light intensities. In summary, our results underscore a key role of Dm9 in color opponent processing in Drosophila and suggest a second role of Dm9 in regulating light adaptation in inner photoreceptors. These novel findings on Dm9 are indeed reminiscent of the versatile functions of horizontal cells in the vertebrate retina.

COC-UFGAN: Underwater image enhancement based on color opponent compensation and dual-subnet underwater fusion generative adversarial network

Due to the complex underwater environment and the attenuation of light, the underwater image is produced with various distortions such as color loss, low contrast, noise, blur, and haze-like, which bring significant challenges to underwater image applications. To alleviate these problems, a novel color opponent compensation and a dual-subnet underwater fusion generative adversarial network (COC-UFGAN) are proposed by simulating the information processing mechanism in the human visual system (HVS). Specifically, considering the color opponent mechanism of the primary visual cortex and the characteristics of underwater imaging, an opponent domain is constructed consisting of four color opponent channels: green–red, yellow-blue, cyan-red and black-white. Then, a novel local-to-global color opponent compensation method is designed to restore color loss in underwater imaging. Furthermore, considering the complexity of underwater imaging, a dual-subnet underwater fusion generative adversarial network is designed. Finally, experimental results on synthetic and natural underwater images demonstrate the superiority of the proposed COC-UFGAN over the state-of-the-art methods qualitatively and quantitatively.

Neurobiological Theories of Addiction: A Comprehensive Review

It is essential to develop theories and models that enable us to understand addiction’s genesis and maintenance, providing a theoretical and empirical framework for designing more effective interventions. Numerous clinical and preclinical research studies have investigated the various brain and physiological mechanisms involved in addictive behavior. Some researchers have gone a step further, developing what we may refer to as “neurobiological theories of addiction”, which are scientific models that can explain and predict different addiction phenomena. Many of these neurobiological theories are not mutually exclusive but rather extensions and refinements of earlier theories. They all share a similar definition of addiction as a chronic disease characterized by a loss of control over substance consumption, with the brain being identified as the principal organ involved. Most propose a multifactorial causation in which both biological and environmental factors interact, accentuating or causing neurobiological dysfunction in structures and brain circuits involved in behavior and motivation. This review delves into primary neurobiological theories of addiction, commencing with the opponent-process theory—one of the earliest comprehensive explanations of the addictive process. Subsequently, we explore more contemporary formulations connecting behavioral alterations in the addictive process to changes and disruptions in various brain systems.

Chromatic processing and receptive-field structure in neurons of the anterior optic tract of the honeybee brain.

Color vision in honeybees is a well-documented perceptual phenomenon including multiple behavioral tests of trichromaticity and color opponency. Data on the combined color/space properties of high order visual neurons in the bee brain is however limited. Here we fill this gap by analyzing the activity of neurons in the anterior optic tract (AOT), a high order brain region suggested to be involved in chromatic processing. The spectral response properties of 72 units were measured using UV, blue and green light stimuli presented in 266 positions of the visual field. The majority of these units comprise combined chromatic-spatial processing properties. We found eight different neuron categories in terms of their spectral, spatial and temporal response properties. Color-opponent neurons, the most abundant neural category in the AOT, present large receptive fields and activity patterns that were typically opponent between UV and blue or green, particularly during the on-tonic response phase. Receptive field shapes and activity patterns of these color processing neurons are more similar between blue and green, than between UV and blue or green. We also identified intricate spatial antagonism and double spectral opponency in some receptive fields of color-opponent units. Stimulation protocols with different color combinations applied to 21 AOT units allowed us to uncover additional levels of spectral antagonism and hidden inhibitory inputs, even in some units that were initially classified as broad-band neurons based in their responses to single spectral lights. The results are discussed in the context of floral color discrimination and celestial spectral gradients.

Rewarding effects in 4-AcO-DMT administration and withdrawal in rats: A challenge to the opponent-process theory

According to the opponent-process theory of drug addiction, the intake of an addictive substance initiates two processes: a rapid primary process that results in the drug’s rewarding effects, and a slower opponent process that leads to the aversive motivational state of drug aftereffects. This aversive state is integral in the desire, pursuit, and maintenance of drug use, potentially leading to dependence and addiction. However, current observational and experimental evidence suggests that the administration of a 5-hydroxytryptamine receptors-type 2A (5-HT2A) agonist, while capable of inducing a positive mental state in humans, may not generate the behavioral patterns typically associated with drugs of abuse. In this study, we found that administering the 5-HT2A agonist 4-Acetoxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine fumarate (4-AcO-DMT) did not result in place preference in male rats compared to control saline administration 24 h later, after the drug has been cleared from the organism. However, in a modified place preference test where only the acute motivational effects of the drug were evaluated (excluding withdrawal), 4-AcO-DMT was found to be rewarding. Furthermore, in another modified place preference test where only the motivational effects of drug withdrawal were evaluated (excluding the acute effects of drug administration), the 24-hour aftereffect of 5-HT2A agonist administration also resulted in a robust place preference. Therefore, while 4-AcO-DMT administration was able to induce place preference, its 24-hour aftereffect also produced a strong reward. In the counterbalanced test, this reward from the aftereffect effectively overshadowed its acute rewarding properties, which could potentially create a false impression that 4-AcO-DMT lacks motivational properties. This suggests that 5-HT2A agonist administration follows a different dynamic than that proposed by the opponent-process theory of motivation and implies that the administration of 5-HT2A agonists may lead to behavioral patterns less typical of drugs associated with addiction.

Invited Session III: Diversity in chromatic processing across the animal kingdom: Color vision in stomatopod crustaceans.

Stomatopod crustaceans, commonly known as mantis shrimp, have perhaps the most unusual color-vision systems of any animals. The uniqueness is possible because stomatopods have compound eyes. Here, each unit, or ommatidium, acts as an independent visual detector, with its own corneal lens, internal optics, and set of photoreceptors. Ommatidia tuned to different wavelengths can be individually placed in the eye to build unusual color systems. In mantis shrimps, the receptors responsible for color vision are limited to six parallel rows of ommatidia that together form an equatorial belt, called the midband. Various receptors in these ommatidia are tuned to eight narrow-band spectral channels in the visible spectrum plus up to four additional ultraviolet channels. Thus, there is a total of twelve different color receptors for color vision. How these color channels are analyzed in the complex set of optic lobes existing behind the retina is only partly understood. It appears that stomatopods use both opponent and labelled-line color channels. Oddly, these animals appear to have limited ability to discriminate between spectral lights, but they have outstanding color constancy. Color vision, and color processing, in stomatopods is probably unlike that of any other animal group.

Contributed Session II: Binocular combination of the pupil response depends on photoreceptor pathway.

The pupillary light response is driven by three classes of retinal photoreceptor. Cones and rods are involved in the initial constriction of the pupil, whereas melanopsin-containing intrinsically photosensitive Retinal Ganglion Cells (ipRGCs) maintain constriction over longer timescales. Previous work has characterized the contributions of photoreceptor signals to pupil control, but relatively little is known about binocular combination of these signals when simultaneously stimulating the retina in both eyes. We measured changes in pupil size in 48 participants using a binocular eye-tracker, targeting specific photoreceptor classes with a binocular 10-primary light engine and the silent substitution method. We stimulated the periphery of the retina using light flickering at 0.4 and 0.5 Hz. Participants viewed a disc of either achromatic flickering light, or contrast modulations that targeted the ipRGCs, or the opponent colour pathways L-M or S-(L+M). Using a modified virtual reality headset, we presented the stimuli at a range of modulation amplitudes in three different ocular configurations: monocular, binocular, and dichoptic. We obtained clear pupil responses at both the first and the second harmonic frequencies. Suppression levels differed across conditions with the strongest suppression measured for the L-M condition. We account for the results in a single modelling framework where the weight of interocular suppression determines the binocular combination properties.

Neuroplasticity of the extended amygdala in opioid withdrawal and prolonged opioid abstinence.

Opioid use disorder is characterized by excessive use of opioids, inability to control its use, a withdrawal syndrome upon discontinuation of opioids, and long-term likelihood of relapse. The behavioral stages of opioid addiction correspond with affective experiences that characterize the opponent process view of motivation. In this framework, active involvement is accompanied by positive affective experiences which gives rise to "reward craving," whereas the opponent process, abstinence, is associated with the negative affective experiences that produce "relief craving." Relief craving develops along with a hypersensitization to the negatively reinforcing aspects of withdrawal during abstinence from opioids. These negative affective experiences are hypothesized to stem from neuroadaptations to a network of affective processing called the "extended amygdala." This negative valence network includes the three core structures of the central nucleus of the amygdala (CeA), the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis (BNST), and the nucleus accumbens shell (NAc shell), in addition to major inputs from the basolateral amygdala (BLA). To better understand the major components of this system, we have reviewed their functions, inputs and outputs, along with the associated neural plasticity in animal models of opioid withdrawal. These models demonstrate the somatic, motivational, affective, and learning related models of opioid withdrawal and abstinence. Neuroadaptations in these stress and motivational systems are accompanied by negative affective and aversive experiences that commonly give rise to relapse. CeA neuroplasticity accounts for many of the aversive and fear-related effects of opioid withdrawal via glutamatergic plasticity and changes to corticotrophin-releasing factor (CRF)-containing neurons. Neuroadaptations in BNST pre-and post-synaptic GABA-containing neurons, as well as their noradrenergic modulation, may be responsible for a variety of aversive affective experiences and maladaptive behaviors. Opioid withdrawal yields a hypodopaminergic and amotivational state and results in neuroadaptive increases in excitability of the NAc shell, both of which are associated with increased vulnerability to relapse. Finally, BLA transmission to hippocampal and cortical regions impacts the perception of conditioned aversive effects of opioid withdrawal by higher executive systems. The prevention or reversal of these varied neuroadaptations in the extended amygdala during opioid withdrawal could lead to promising new interventions for this life-threatening condition.

Rapid appearance of negative emotion during oral fentanyl self-administration in male and female rats.

Opioid use disorder has become an epidemic in the United States, fuelled by the widespread availability of fentanyl, which produces rapid and intense euphoria followed by severe withdrawal and emotional distress. We developed a new preclinical model of fentanyl seeking in outbred male and female rats using volitional oral self-administration (SA) that can be readily applied in labs without intravascular access. Using a traditional two-lever operant procedure, rats learned to take oral fentanyl vigorously, escalated intake across sessions, and readily reinstated responding to conditioned cues after extinction. Oral SA also revealed individual and sex differences that are essential to studying substance use risk propensity. During a behavioural economics task, rats displayed inelastic demand curves and maintained stable intake across a wide range of fentanyl concentrations. Oral SA was also neatly patterned, with distinct 'loading' and 'maintenance' phases of responding within each session. Using our software DeepSqueak, we analysed ultrasonic vocalizations (USVs), which are innate expressions of current emotional state in rats. Rats produced 50 kHz USVs during loading then shifted quickly to 22 kHz calls despite ongoing maintenance of oral fentanyl taking, reflecting a transition to negative reinforcement. Using fibre photometry, we found that the lateral habenula differentially processed drug cues and drug consumption depending on affective state, with potentiated modulation by drug cues and consumption during the negative affective maintenance phase. Together, these results indicate a rapid progression from positive to negative reinforcement occurs even within an active drug taking session, revealing a within-session opponent process.

Drogue detection for autonomous aerial refueling via hybrid pigeon-inspired optimized color opponent and saliency aggregation

Drogue detection is one of the challenging tasks in autonomous aerial refueling due to the requirement for accuracy and rapidity. Saliency detection based on image intrinsic cues can achieve fast detection, but with poor accuracy. Recent studies reveal that optimization-based methods provide accurate and quick solutions for saliency detection. This paper presents a hybrid pigeon-inspired optimization method, the optimized color opponent, that aims to adjust the weight of color opponent channels to detect the drogue region. It can optimize the weights in the selected aerial refueling scene offline, and the results are applied for drogue detection in the scene. A novel algorithm aggregated by the optimized color opponent and robust background detection is presented to provide better precision and robustness. Experimental results on benchmark datasets and aerial refueling images show that the proposed method successfully extracts the saliency region or drogue and exhibits superior performance against the other saliency detection methods with intrinsic cues. The algorithm designed in this paper is competent for the drogue detection task of autonomous aerial refueling.

Differential encoding of temporally evolving color patterns across nearby V1 neurons.

Whereas studies of the V1 cortex have focused mainly on neural line orientation preference, color inputs are also known to have a strong presence among these neurons. Individual neurons typically respond to multiple colors and nearby neurons have different combinations of preferred color inputs. However, the computations performed by V1 neurons on such color inputs have not been extensively studied. Here we aimed to address this issue by studying how different V1 neurons encode different combinations of inputs composed of four basic colors. We quantified the decoding accuracy of individual neurons from multi-electrode array recordings, comparing multiple individual neurons located within 2 mm along the vertical axis of the V1 cortex of the anesthetized rat. We found essentially all V1 neurons to be good at decoding spatiotemporal patterns of color inputs and they did so by encoding them in different ways. Quantitative analysis showed that even adjacent neurons encoded the specific input patterns differently, suggesting a local cortical circuitry organization which tends to diversify rather than unify the neuronal responses to each given input. Using different pairs of monocolor inputs, we also found that V1 neocortical neurons had a diversified and rich color opponency across the four colors, which was somewhat surprising given the fact that rodent retina express only two different types of opsins. We propose that the processing of color inputs in V1 cortex is extensively composed of multiple independent circuitry components that reflect abstract functionalities resident in the internal cortical processing rather than the raw sensory information per se.