Operations In Petroleum Industry Research Articles

Process Optimization of the Flaring Gas for Field Applications

During petroleum industry operations, burning flammable gas components in the flaring stacks is common, normally a symbol for stable production, but flaring these components creates harmful emissions for the environment. This flaring gas has components with a high quantity of heating power, an important measurement that quantifies the energy that can potentially be obtained from this wasted resource. This paper aims to evaluate the energy usage of the flaring gas, estimating the possible energy produced with this usable resource by modeling a treatment and energy generation process employing the Aspen HYSYS® simulator. The flaring gas is characterized using different models and compositional ranges of natural gas to know what kind of gas it is and identify what type of equipment could be used for treatment and energy generation from this resource. After the gas characterization, the selection of the equipment of treatment and energy generation is necessary; this is done using a multicriteria analysis by taking into consideration the variables of gas composition, electrical efficiency, economic performance, and GHG emissions, ensuring to generate the greatest amount of energy possible to be produced with this flaring gas. By increasing the LHV, 0.95 MMSCF of flared gas of an oilfield in the VMM basin produced 5133 kW, enough energy to supply gas treatment and power generation facilities and four times the total gross consumption energy of a model oilfield in the basin, while the CO2 emissions were reduced 11.4%, and cost savings using this resource instead of diesel were obtained. In conclusion, to minimize flaring and to recover and reuse these waste components, looking for alternatives for the use of this gas-like power generation is an important option that reduces pollutants emission, gives a new source of fuel, and gives an energy usefulness to this wasted resource.

Mini-review on Recent Advances in the Application of Surface-Active Ionic Liquids: Petroleum Industry Perspective

Ionic liquids have emerged as a promising new material for a wide range of industrial applications, because of their unique structures and properties. Ionic liquids possess exceptional properties such as chemical and thermal stability, negligible vapor pressure, or solvency power for different types of molecules. Ionic liquids find their application in different operations in petroleum industry. The purpose of this paper is to review previously published works on the application of the IL in various areas of the petroleum industry and related processes. A detailed discussion of various processes such as enhanced oil recovery, drilling fluids, gas hydrate, CO2 capture, and flow assurance has been provided. This in-depth discussion is intended to aid professional and researchers in understanding the present condition and planning for the future.

Frictional buckling analyses of a slender rod constrained in a horizontal cylinder

In this paper we have discussed the frictional buckling behavior of a slender rod constrained in a horizontal cylinder. Buckling and post-buckling behaviors including the onset of helical buckling and subsequent axial force transfer are interpreted in a new way. Helical buckling and concomitant low force transfer efficiency which would prevent further axial extended reach is important to engineering structures, such as coiled tubing operations in petroleum industry. By means of the beam-column method, new governing differential equation of frictional buckling are derived to predict critical buckling force. We also investigate the transfer efficiency of axial force quantifying the effect of axial friction on rod lockup phenomenon in post-buckling analyses by perturbation solution. The coupling effect between axial force and friction is solved for the first time in this paper. The bending moment at the lock-up limit which would cause the rod to rupture is also analyzed. Finally, we have compared the proposed model with experimental results to verify its validity. Through these analyses, we have provided another interpretation to the existing experiment and numerical simulation results of frictional buckling. The derived results are simple and convenient for a problem in industrial practice.

Performance evaluation of a new nanocomposite polymer gel for water shutoff in petroleum reservoirs

A new polymer gel nanocomposite is fabricated for excess water production control (water shut off) in petroleum reservoirs and its rheological behavior is evaluated in the presence of sea water and formation water at the temperature of 100 °C. It is shown that at a high salinity without using SiO2 nanoparticles, the elastic modulus of synthesized polymer gel in the presence of sea water and formation water are 12.5 Pa and 9.8 Pa respectively. However by incorporation of SiO2 nanoparticles in the polymer gel matrix, the elastic modulus of synthesized polymer gel in the presence of sea water and formation water can be improved to 13.56 Pa and 11.57 Pa respectively, which is quite interesting from reservoir engineering viewpoint. Equilibrium Swelling Ratio (ESR) of the nanocomposite polymer gel in sea water and formation water decreases as the concentration of the SiO2 increases. Thermal stability of the polymer gel is investigated by differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) measurements. The inflexion temperature of the polymer gel is improved by incorporation of 2000 ppm SiO2 nanoparticles. The fabricated polymer gel nanocomposite in this work can have potential application in reduction of excess water production during enhanced oil recovery (EOR) operations in petroleum industry.

Experimental Study of CO2 – Saline Aquifer-Carbonate Rock Interaction during CO2 Sequestration

Combustion of fossil fuels, as well as exploration and production operations in petroleum industry is a source of greenhouse gases, mainly CO2, which has been accounted for increasing concern over global warming. Deep saline aquifers are proposed as a promising sink for disposal of greenhouse gases in order to mitigate the air pollution. In this work, carbonate cores saturated with saline aquifer samples were exposed to CO2 to investigate the role of geochemical reactions during CO2 sequestration. Experiments were conducted for 91 days at temperature of 40 ̊C and pressure of 62bar with brine samples containing Na+, Ca2+, Mg2+, Fe2+, and K+ ions present in the system, and in the presence of dolomite rock and CO2. Comparison of CO2-treated and untreated cores and analysis of brine samples taken during experiments revealed that dolomite was dissolved during experiments and concentration of Mg2+ and Ca2+ ions in the brine increased. In addition, the permeability and porosity of all cores increased after experiment. Meanwhile, analysis of SEM and XRD images showed there is no secondary mineralization, thus solubility trapping is the dominant mechanism of CO2 trapping in carbonate reservoir. The results of this study will provide an insight into future development of full-field sequestration of CO2 into saline aquifers.

A Reliable Model for Estimating the Wax Deposition Rate During Crude Oil Production and Processing

Deposition of wax in surface and subsurface pipes and even perforations can lead to serious problems including pore spaces blockage, plugging of pipelines, and minimum profitability. Therefore, understanding wax deposition and wax related-properties improves the oil recovery and processing operations in petroleum industry. In this research work, the rate of wax deposition is correlated to a number of main parameters such as the dynamic viscosity of crude oil, shear stress, gradient of wax molecular concentration and temperature difference in pipeline system through implementation of a newly developed model, known as least squares support vector machine (LSSVM) along with the coupled simulated annealing (CSA) optimization strategy. The possible outliers are detected through employing the Leverage technique which involves residual errors plots, Williams' plot, and Hat matrix. The results imply that whole collected real data are in applicability domain of the proposed model. Using a comprehensive statistical investigation, a very good agreement between the predicted LSSVM-CSA outputs and real wax deposition rate is found such that the average relative error percentage and determination coefficient (R2) are 0.048% and 0.999, respectively. Such a study can assist to provide better designs (technically and economically) for underground and surface facilities while dealing with wax deposition cases.

Petroleum microbiology

This brief encyclopedia entry provides a succinct but useful definition of the field of study known as petroleum microbiology. This blog provides a good overview of microbial enhanced oil recovery history, methods, successes and needs for further research. Sintef, the largest independent research organization in Scandinavia, provides an excellent resource on the general topic of petroleum microbiology. There are links to original research papers. This site provides elementary information about the different facets of petroleum microbiology. This report is well referenced and contains some general information on enhanced recovery techniques and biosurfactants. This Wikipedia entry is a good starting point for information on oil spills. Parts of it deal with bioremediation and the addition of dispersants. This report, although a bit dated, is a useful compilation of issues relevant to microbiological treatment of oil spills in the oceans. This site is self-described as the ‘Little black book for oil spill contractors’. This booklet is published by the American Academy of Microbiology and contains general information pertaining to oil spills, organized in a frequently-asked-questions format. This page contains photos pertaining to the Deepwater Horizon spill in the Gulf of Mexico in the summer of 2010. This page focuses on microbiological aspects of oil spills. This page maintained by the US Environmental Protection Agency contains broad-based information on oil spills. It provides links to protocols and recommended practices. This page provides information on the microbial biodegradation reactions known for benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene and xylenes (BTEX). Isooctane is an example of a branched, aliphatic hydrocarbon and its biodegradation metabolism is shown at this site. Fluorene is an example of a fused-ring aromatic/aliphatic compound representative of a large group of compounds found in petroleum. Dibenzothiophene is a representative heterocyclic compound. Microbes catalyse an interesting and useful set of reactions with these compounds that result in the removal of the organic sulfur. This page provides a good list of papers relevant to oil spills. Most of the papers focus on microbiological or analytical chemical aspects. This book is a comprehensive resource on the microbiological aspects of well biofouling. This Wikipedia entry provides an excellent overview of microbial enhanced oil recovery. This site emphasizes how microbiology plays a key role in petroleum industry operations. Claude ZoBell was a pioneer in petroleum microbiology and his work laid the groundwork for subsequent studies on hydrocarbon metabolism, biosurfactants and concepts of enhanced oil recovery.

The Environmental and Economic Sustainability of Carbon Capture and Storage

For carbon capture and storage (CCS) to be a truly effective option in our efforts to mitigate climate change, it must be sustainable. That means that CCS must deliver consistent environmental and social benefits which exceed its costs of capital, energy and operation; it must be protective of the environment and human health over the long term; and it must be suitable for deployment on a significant scale. CCS is one of the more expensive and technically challenging carbon emissions abatement options available, and CCS must first and foremost be considered in the context of the other things that can be done to reduce emissions, as a part of an overall optimally efficient, sustainable and economic mitigation plan. This elevates the analysis beyond a simple comparison of the cost per tonne of CO2 abated—there are inherent tradeoffs with a range of other factors (such as water, NOx, SOx, biodiversity, energy, and human health and safety, among others) which must also be considered if we are to achieve truly sustainable mitigation. The full life-cycle cost of CCS must be considered in the context of the overall social, environmental and economic benefits which it creates, and the costs associated with environmental and social risks it presents. Such analysis reveals that all CCS is not created equal. There is a wide range of technological options available which can be used in a variety of industries and applications—indeed CCS is not applicable to every industry. Stationary fossil-fuel powered energy and large scale petroleum industry operations are two examples of industries which could benefit from CCS. Capturing and geo-sequestering CO2 entrained in natural gas can be economic and sustainable at relatively low carbon prices, and in many jurisdictions makes financial sense for operators to deploy now, if suitable secure disposal reservoirs are available close by. Retrofitting existing coal-fired power plants, however, is more expensive and technically challenging, and the economic sustainability of post-combustion capture retrofit needs to be compared on a portfolio basis to the relative overall net benefit of CCS on new-build plants, where energy efficiency can be optimised as a first step, and locations can be selected with sequestration sites in mind. Examples from the natural gas processing, liquefied natural gas (LNG), and coal-fired power generation sectors, illustrate that there is currently a wide range of financial costs for CCS, depending on how and where it is applied, but equally, environmental and social benefits of emissions reduction can be considerable. Some CCS applications are far more economic and sustainable than others. CCS must be considered in the context of the other things that a business can do to eliminate emissions, such as far-reaching efforts to improve energy efficiency.

Experimental Study of Asphaltenes Flocculation Onset in Crude Oils Using the Densitometry Measurement Technique

The asphaltenes flocculation proceeds with changes of oil composition and causes significant losses in petroleum industry operations. The main objective of this work is to evaluate the reliability of the densitometry technique in studying experimentally the mechanism of aggregation and flocculation of asphaltenes occurring in crude oils. As asphaltene flocculation threshold in crude oils or mixture can be achieved by addition of n-heptane, various n-heptane concentrations were added to crude oil, and their effects have been investigated trough density measurements. Thereby, measurements were based on mixture of crude oil + toluene and cyclohexane + n-heptane, respectively. While asphaltene aggregates form clusters and flocculate, the mixture volumetric mass change and the reduced density of non-Newtonian fluids under investigation have been pointed out as one of appropriate measures of flocculation process. In particular, the curve representing the reduced density as function of the ratio between n-heptane concentration and concentration of crude oil under study featured a break point that well characterizes the flocculation threshold. Besides the quantity needed to initiate and to aggregate asphaltenes within crude oils, the amount required to completely achieve deposition of asphaltenes has also been identified. A quantity of 4 and 20 g of n-heptane per gram of crude oil was found necessary.

Rheology of Doped Nigerian Niger-Delta Waxy Crude Oil

Precipitation and deposition of wax, which usually results from temperature lowering, has detrimental effects on petroleum industry operations. To appreciate and understand the physicochemical mechanics of wax precipitation, rheological experiments were carried out on three doped and undoped Nigerian waxy crude oils. The characteristic shear stress straining rate shows an initial constant shear stress below 50 sec−1 shear rate, followed by a gradual increase above 50 sec−1 which is indicative of energy consumption in the partial break-up of wax matrix bonds. Doping greatly ameliorates the rheological properties and pour points of the crude oils. The Bingham plastic model excellently fit the experimental data, with a correlation coefficient ≥ 0.97721.

Applications of Autonomous Underwater Vehicles in Offshore Petroleum Industry Environmental Effects Monitoring

Abstract Environmental Effects Monitoring (EEM) is an important tool in assisting Environmental Risk Assessment (ERA). EEM in the offshore petroleum industry has been conducted worldwide, but traditional approaches have struggled to keep apace as exploration and production activities move to frontier regions, such as increasingly deeper waters and Arctic regions. This paper proposes the use of autonomous underwater vehicles (AUVs) for environmental monitoring of offshore facilities as a means of improving and expanding the overall monitoring program. The paper provides a review of technical and procedural issues involved in this application of AUV technology, including the current status of offshore oil and gas EEM, a review of available AUVs and a survey of developments in in situ sensors. Introduction Offshore petroleum industry operations affect the marine environment in a variety of ways: high sound levels from seismic surveys that affect marine animals; exposure of marine organisms to drilling mud, produced water discharges and accidentally spilled oils; and the physical alteration of habitat due to the construction of submarine structures. The potential risks to the environment posed by offshore oil and gas operations support the need for effective Environmental Effects Monitoring (EEM) around the project development areas. EEM is a central component of environmental protection and management strategies designed to minimize the consequences of anthropogenic activities(1). It is a very important tool in assisting Environmental Risk Assessment (ERA) which is seen from many studies that link EEM and ERA together(2, 3). EEM is required by regulations governing industry activities offshore, and by government agencies in relation to cumulative impact assessment studies(4). The United States started the use of environmental monitoring programs in 1973. The Mineral Management Services (MMS) is currently responsible for managing oil and gas activities on the outer continental shelf (OCS). In the early stages of EEM programs, MMS monitored the effects of petroleum exploration activities on the George's Bank, Middle Atlantic OCS and the Gulf of Mexico. Early monitoring programs mainly focused on the effects of drilling wastes on benthic communities through a variety of sampling methods, such as camera transects, crab traps, bottom trawls and box corers. The MMS has also monitored the effects of petroleum development and production activities in the Gulf of Mexico, Santa Maria and Western Santa Barbara Channels off California, and in the Alaska Beaufort Sea. Trace metals and hydrocarbons in the water column, sediments, pore waters and biological tissues are collected and analyzed. In Canada, both government agencies and operators have carried out EEM. For example, Petro-Canada collected sediment samples from 49 stations and water samples from 24 stations in an area located in the vicinity of the Terra Nova Oil Field during 2000 to 2001. Analyses of samples included hydrocarbon concentration, metal concentration, particle size and the presence of sulphur, sulphide and ammonia(5). Fisheries and Oceans Canada also conducts annual EEM missions at the Hibernia, Terra Nova and The baud fields off the east coast of Canada. Both sediment and water samples are collected and the biodiversity of benthic organisms are studied using underwater photography.

Heavy metal analysis of groundwater from Warri, Nigeria

The levels of some ions of heavy metals known to be associated with petroleum industry operations, including Pb, Ni, V, Cr, Cd, Zn and Fe, were studied in untreated groundwater from Warri area, Nigeria, by atomic absorption spectroscopy. Warri area is characterized by petroleum industry activities including a Refinery. With this in mind, the residential area was divided into Effurun junction, Waterside, Ekpan village and the Refinery's vicinity. The concentrations of Pb, Ni and Fe measured (in mg l -1 ) in the groundwater samples of all areas studied ranged from 0.06 to 0.44, 0.008 to 0.19 and 0.315 to 2.753 respectively, while V, Cr, Zn and Cd were present in very low concentrations, 0-0.85 2 10 -3 . The levels of Pb, Ni and Fe exceeded the threshold limits (0.01, 0.02 and 0.3 mg l -1 , respectively) set by the WHO health-based guideline for drinking water and this could portend environmental hazards.

Benzene and total hydrocarbons exposures in the downstream petroleum industries.

A review of studies, including both articles published in peer-reviewed journals and reports that were not peer reviewed, regarding occupational exposure to benzene and total hydrocarbons in the downstream petroleum industry operations was performed. The objective was to provide a broad estimate of exposures by compiling exposure data according to the following categories: refinery, pipeline, marine, rail, bulk terminals and trucks, service stations, underground storage tanks, tank cleaning, and site remediations. The data in each category was divided into personal occupational long-term and short-term samples. The summarized data offers valuable assistance to hygienists by providing them with an estimate and range of exposures. The traditional 8-hour time-weighted average (TWA) exposure and the 40-hour workweek do not generally coincide with exposure periods applicable to workers in marine, pipeline, railcar, and trucking operations. They are more comparable with short-term exposure or task-based exposure assessments. The marine sector has a large number of high exposures. Although relatively few workers are exposed, their exposures to benzene and total hydrocarbons are sometimes an order of magnitude higher than the respective exposure limits. It is recommended that in the future, it would be preferable to do more task-based exposure assessments and fewer traditional TWA long-term exposure assessments within the various sectors of the downstream petroleum industry.

Effects of Density and Viscosity in Vertical Zero Net Liquid Flow

An experimental study was conducted to investigate the effects of density and viscosity on zero net liquid flow (ZNLF) in vertical pipes. Predicting liquid holdup under ZNLF conditions is necessary in several types of petroleum industry operations. These include predicting bottomhole pressures in pumping oil wells and the design of compact gas-liquid cylindrical cyclone (GLCC©)1 separators. Models are proposed to predict flow pattern transitions under ZNLF conditions and comparisons are made with commonly used vertical flow pattern transition criteria. Data was collected using a 3-in.-diam, 14-ft-section of transparent vertical pipe. Several different fluids, of differing density and viscosity, were utilized with air flowing at approximately 25 psig. Results are presented showing the liquid holdup and the flow distribution coefficient C0 as a function of density, viscosity, and superficial gas velocity. [S0195-0738(00)00402-7]

Performance of long-term, field-scale bioremediation processes

The behavior of chemicals over long periods of time must be investigated to assess the effectiveness of bioremediation. Three long-term, field-scale studies are presented and demonstrate the effectiveness of bioremediation at reducing chemical concentrations, mobility, and toxicity in soils and sludges over long time-periods. Two case studies described the land-treatment of wood-treatment site soils and sludges while the third case study described the land-treatment of oily wastes from petroleum industry operations. These long-term studies confirmed that chemicals in bioremediation residues are contained in treated soils, that chemical concentrations continue to decline after active remediation stops, and that toxicity is reduced. Even though significant concentrations of chemicals were present in the residuals, the toxicity and mobility of the residual chemicals and, therefore, the risk associated with them, had been substantially reduced.

Exploring The Fascinating World Of Reservoir Fluid Phase Behaviour

Introduction Reservoir fluid phase equilibria affect all aspects of petroleum industry operations, from reservoir development to fluid processing and pipelining. Fluid composition, phase equilibria and physical properties are needed on the upstream side in reserves evaluation, well testing, predicting reservoir performance and optimizing its recovery. As still deeper formations including off-shore structures are drilled, more exotic fluids are encountered. The recently considered plan to produce a reservoir in Alberta containing fluid with H2S in excess of 90% is one such example. The phase equilibria reflect the nature of intermolecular forces, and the behaviour of these highly non-ideal systems presents a severe test of correlations (including the most sophisticated one, the equation of state) developed to describe properties of the typical gas and oil. While a lot of progress has been made in modeling phase equilibria and properties of reservoir fluids, some laboratory measurements still form a basic part of fluid evaluation. This brief note selects to explore the special but quite frequently encountered features of reservoir fluid equilibria-the complex phenomena brought about by close proximity to the critical point. Near-critical fluids and mixtures are encountered in both primary and supplementary recovery processes. Some manifestations of near-critical behaviour are discussed. The reservoir engineer needs to be aware of them, as near-critical conditions have implications for fluid flow, multiple phase formation, data collection, and data interpretation. Reservoir Fluid Spectrum Figure 1, the pressure-temperature diagram, provides a suitable frame of reference for classifying different oil and gas field fluids. The classification is based on the position of a fluid two-phase envelope relative to reservoir and surface conditions of pressure and temperature. The shape of the two-phase region and the relative positions of the critical point (CP), the cricondenbar and cricondentherm (maximum two-phase pressure and temperature, respectively) are determined by fluid composition, specifically by the magnitude and makeup of the C7+ fraction. As the amount of the C7+ fraction increases, the fluid character changes from a dry gas to a wet gas, gas condensate, volatile oil, black oil (and ultimately, a bitumen). At the same time the two-phase envelope extends to higher temperatures. The different production paths implied in the figure by possible reservoir (R) and surface (S) conditions define different fluid types as follows: RI-SI is a dry gas, RI-S2 a wet gas, R2-S2 a gas condensate, R3-82 a volatile oil, and R4-83 a black oil. Turning attention to reservoirs at temperatures close to fluid critical temperature, these are either volatile oils (R3) with bubble point saturation pressures, or gas condensates (R2) with dew point saturation pressures. A rule-of-thumb usually applied in determining the fluid type considers fluids with C7+ content over 12.5% and of producing GOR under 570 m3/m3 to be oils. However, a hypothetical fluid with the phase diagram of Figure 1, i.e., of a fixed C7+ content and fixed surface GOR (corresponding to, e.g., 82) could be either an oil or gas depending entirely on whether the reservoir temperature is R2 or R3! This illustrates that this rule-ofthumb, while quite useful, has to be applied judiciously.

A New Quality Program for the Petroleum Industry

Summary. The contents of API Spec. Q1, Specification for Quality Programs, is highlighted. The plan under development to survey manufacturers for compliance to provisions of API Spec. Q1 and the product specifications is also discussed, along with the potential timetable for implementation. The changes described are substantial and represent a significant departure from API Production Dept. standards and the monogram program of the past. The goals of the new API quality program are quality-monogrammed products, consistent requirements, consistent application of requirements, decisions based on objective evidence, minimum time from application to decision, continuous opportunity for product-specification improvement, broadest acceptance of API standards, and a cost-effective program for industry. Introduction The quality (conformance to specified requirements) of petroleum-industry equipment and materials is a multilevel concern. To a petroleum producer, the right gear can mean the difference between troublefree, profitable, producing wells and expensive, unsafe operations. To a petroleum-equipment manufacturer, consistent quality is the key to business success. To API, answering the industry's concerns for a record of efficient, environmentally sound operations avoids more government involvement in the oil business. As such, API initiated major changes in its standardization program. The objectives here are to discuss the motivations for changes in the program, to describe the changes, and to outline the potential benefits. First, the reasons API became involved in standardization are examined. Then the standardization program's transformation over the years is discussed. Reasons for API Standards. The API Div. of Standardization, now known as the API Production Dept., was formed in 1923. At that time, the marketplace for production equipment was chaotic. There was little interchangeability between different manufacturers' pipe, fittings, equipment, and tools. Purchasing was a nightmare. Inventories were high; discrepancies caused delays, higher costs, and safety hazards. The API standardization program goal then, as now, was to facilitate the broad availability of safe interchangeable products. To reach this goal, the industry needs unambiguous specifications it can accept and use to identify materials, and users need a source of manufacturers that are capable of producing products that conform to those specifications. During the first 50 years, the API standardization program focused on dimensional uniformity and interchangeability among the same products made by different manufacturers. Gradually, the standards increased in complexity. Standards began to include wider ranges of sizes, materials, chemistry, and working pressure, as well as strength and other physical requirements. Early on, an API monogram was adopted to identify materials that conformed to API standards under API's licensing system. Manufacturers certified that their products complied with API standards. With this self-certification, they could then mark products with the API monogram. Today, more than 1,500 manufacturers worldwide are licensed to use the mark. The system worked well and provided the desired benefits. Even good things must change with the environment or perish, however, and the environment did change. Motivations for Change. The increased emphasis from onshore to offshore production made national governments worldwide not-so-silent partners in the petroleum industry's operations. Environmental and personnel safety concerns prompted federal regulatory agencies to begin adopting or referencing API standards in their regulations. What had been voluntary became mandatory. Where standards did not exist, or where regulators judged existing standards to be inadequate, pressure fell on API to fill the gap with new standards or to improve existing standards. In addition, pressure was directed toward insurance that equipment would perform adequately under field conditions. It became evident that the API standardization program had to be accelerated, broadened, and strengthened. Changes Changes began more than 10 years ago. In 1973, the Committee on Standardization of Offshore Safety and Antipollution Equipment was formed. In 10 months, the committee produced its first standard, which went far beyond the scope of previous ones. For the first time, the specification required quality-control testing and a review of the manufacturer's qualifications to use the API monogram. In 1980, another step was taken in the evolution. JPT P. 814^

TRENDS IN DATA ANALYSIS FOR PETROLEUM EXPLORATION AND DEVELOPMENT

The computer world is presently locked in a race to produce the futuristic fifth generation computer, one which will simulate some parts of human intelligence. At the back of this is the current interest in expert systems and their adaptation to petroleum exploration and development. Converging hardware and software technologies, combined with industry requirements, show a definite trend to move from the emphasis on hardware and operations systems toward software and informational systems. It is not possible to predict the precise form in which this will impact petroleum industry operations but it is certain that much greater analytical power and control will rest in the hands of the interpreters enabling much higher rates of productivity and effectiveness in the location of hydrocarbon reservoirs.

Applications of Nuclear Science in Petroleum Production

Introduction To aid in solving the many problems with which it is faced, the petroleum industry long has been accustomed to rely on the research which it conducts at its own expense and to adapt to its particular needs the results of research which originates in other fields. Just as it has been able to put to its own uses many other scientific advances, so the petroleum industry has drawn freely on developments in nuclear science to provide new tools, methods and knowledge designed to aid in the search for petroleum and in the production of oil and gas. At the outset, it must be understood that, to date, there has been no application of nuclear science which may be said to have revolutionized the petroleum industry's operations. It is true, however, that nuclear science has made numerous, distinct contributions to the industry in a number of ways and that this multiplicity of applications represents, in the aggregate, a very real advance. Geochronology Illustrative of the way in which developments in nuclear science can be of benefit in petroleum exploration is the application of age-dating to the sediments drilled in the search for petroleum. Since the early days of radioactivity, there has been an interest on the part of the geologist in dating strata in an absolute chronology by use of various radioactivity decay schemes. Joly, Rutherford, and their contemporaries laid the ground-work many years ago by use of uranium-lead, thorium-lead and uranium-helium methods in which the relative amounts of "parent" and of "daughter" were determined by chemical analysis alone. As the years have passed, more decay systems have been exploited, and more highly sophisticated methods have been brought to bear on the accurate determinations of parent and daughter which are required for precise dating. Today, there is a wealth of literature on the subject, and additional research is being carried out in many places which is designed to make more accurate the determination of age.

The Economics of the International Petroleum Industry

Introduction The petroleum industry's operations not only affect the lives of all of us here, but also play a major role in shaping the economy and influencing the political life of every nation in the world. We find ourselves today face-to-face with enormous responsibilities at home and abroad. In this paper the writers will review some of the dangers and pitfalls which the industry has overcome in the past, and, even more important, take a good look at the future - particularly the long term future of supply and demand, and the political factors which underlie them. Thirty-five years ago we were gravely concerned over our vanishing oil resources. At that time one of the pundits of the economic world recommended to his friends that they sell their oil stocks for the reason that the industry would soon have no raw material with which to work. At the same time, a Kansas professor strongly advised against "senseless joy-riding," as he considered it a waste of precious natural resource which, in his opinion, should only be sold at a very high price as, of course, a measure of conservation. However, our Kansas professor felt also that the way to keep the price high was for the states to siphon-off the profits in high taxes, and he mentioned taxes of a dollar a barrel. Our first and greatest concern then was the scarcity of the basic raw material upon which the industry lived. Eugene Stebinger, then chief geologist of the U. S. Geological Survey, had estimated the possible world reserves at under 30 billion bbl. MidContinent crude sold for over $31 bbl. Since that time we have consumed some 50 billion bbl and today our forward supply picture has never been more promising.