Open Systems Interconnection Research Articles

Development of a gearbox test rig to evaluate the impact of oil formulations on churning and friction losses

From large industrial to small high-speed transmission for electric vehicles, there is a growing interest in reducing the power losses on gearboxes. Hydrodynamic losses are especially relevant on high-speed gearboxes. On electric cars, the gearbox lubricant also works as a cooling fluid for the motor, which brings new challenges as performance under an electrified environment, thermal and electrical conductivity, corrosion protection etc. Most current test rigs use the torque difference between gearbox output and input to calculate the power losses. This work, uses the instantaneous deceleration on a small gearbox to obtain the no-load depending on power losses. Due to its simplicity, the proposed method has the potential to be applied to actual transmissions with very simple sensors and without the need for significant intervention on the actual equipment. The experimental results showed increased churning power losses with the immersion depth and oil viscosity. With the tested transmission oils, the churning losses showed to depend on rotational speed by a power of three, as predicted by the ISO model. The influence of oil viscosity was less evident. Reducing viscosity 2.5 times showed only around 25% reduction in the calculated churning losses. In opposition to the tested transmission oils, a low-viscosity oil with Friction Modifier additives reduced the power losses with the consecutive larger volumes of sump oil, such unexpected result can be explained by the beneficial effect of the oil FM additives.

ANTMAC: Addressing Novel Congestion Technique Hybrid Model for Collision Control in IoT-based Environments using Contention-based MAC Protocol

In the communication model of the OSI layer, the Media access control (MAC) layer has been given higher priority than other layers. It is a sub-layer of the data link layer, mainly controlling the physical equipment and interacting with the channels over the Internet of Things (IoT) sensor nodes. Mac layers have used two protocol types: contention-based and contention-free during transmission. These two protocols have controlled the physical equipment and data transmission for the last decade. Yet in the MAC layers transmission, some challenging issues are complicated to resolve. Data collisions are the significant changing issues at the MAC layer. As per the survey of researchers, the contention-based protocol is more affected by collision due to allowing the sharing of channels to all nodes over networks. As a result, it has got message delay, demanding more energy, data loss, and retransmission. The researcher always focuses on reducing collision during transmission to overcome these issues. They mainly evaluate the priority-based collision control using the contention-based protocol. In this ANTMAC model, we have considered the lower energy nodes’ priority to enhance the likelihood that a node will gain access to the transmission channel before its power and batteries run out. Our recommended method ANTMAC outperforms ECM-MAC in terms of content retrieval time (CRT), total no of retransmission (TNR), total energy consumption (TEcm), throughput and network lifetime (NLT).

Adaptive phase-field modeling of fracture propagation in layered media: Effects of mechanical property mismatches, layer thickness, and interface strength

Fracture propagation in layered media is investigated using an adaptive phase-field method. We focus on the interplay between cracks and interfaces, considering both perfectly and imperfectly bonded interfaces. For perfectly bonded interfaces, three-layer models are analyzed to study the effects of mechanical property mismatches, layer thickness, and confinement pressure on crack growth. Results reveal that critical energy release rate mismatch significantly influences the crack geometry, leading to single through-going fractures, middle layer fragmentation, or delamination. There is an inverse relationship between layer thickness and fragmentation, and between confinement pressure and delamination. For imperfectly bonded interfaces, a phase-field method incorporating an interface energy term is introduced and validated with benchmark examples. This model is used to study the combined effects of mechanical property mismatch and interface strength on crack growth. Our findings demonstrate that the interface strength strongly influences the dominant failure mechanism, with high strength favoring mechanical property mismatch-driven fracture and low strength leading to interfacial failure. Finally, the robustness of the proposed method is illustrated through a complex seven-layer model. This study provides valuable insights into the various factors influencing macroscopic failure mechanisms in layered materials.

Developing a Desktop-Based OSI Model Interactive Learning Application Using VB.NET

This research focuses on developing a desktop-based learning application to help students understand the concept of OSI Model using VB.NET. The purpose of this application is to provide interactive learning media that can facilitate understanding of the seven layers of OSI and the process of data transmission in the network. This research applies the Waterfall method, starting from requirements analysis, system design, implementation, testing, to the operation and maintenance stage. The development results show that this application is equipped with structured learning material features, evaluation quizzes, and user-friendly navigation. The application trial shows performance in accordance with the design, where the quiz evaluation feature is able to provide an accurate assessment of student understanding. In conclusion, this learning application can be an innovative solution in the delivery of OSI Model material, with further development opportunities that include the addition of interactive simulations and support for mobile devices.

Implementation of Site to Site IPsec VPN Tunnel using GNS3 Simulation

Abstract: This paper focuses on the implementation of a site-to-site IPsec tunnel to establish a secure connected link over a public network between two sites. To do so, an IP addressing plan was created and a topology was drawn to replicate a local area network between different sites, i.e., LIBYA and TUNIS. After this, an IP tunnel was set up, secure communication was established in the replicating LAN, and all packets were transferred over an encrypted form between the two different sites correctly. The area of this study lies in the domains of network security and VPN. When discussing the technicalities, for this research, we will establish an IP tunneling over an encryption layer. For this task, we will implement the Internet Protocol Security (IPsec) suite to authenticate and encrypt the traffic before encapsulating the actual payloads for the connected link on the OSI model Layer 3. After setting the required authentication and encryption methods over the connections, a secure link can be established to share the data neighborly in a public environment. A secure VPN site-to-site link will provide high-quality dedicated bandwidth WAN links to the users, which are considered significant for the network architecture of internetworking. As a result, secure communication features utilizing VPN site-to-site IPsec encryption play a vital role in disaster recovery between the different sites or the replication of services and data for business operations and communications. This paper recommends that it is essential for a growing organization to make their respective communication secure and implement alternative ways to manage, maintain, and control the secure communication environments.

Analytical Evaluation of the WebSocket and WebTransport Protocols for the Class of SCADA Systems Operating Within the Intranet

The purpose of research. In recent years, web technologies have been actively used in many process control systems, including SCADA. Such systems allow continuous monitoring of the test object in real time. In this regard, there is a need for frequent data transmission for their further display. To solve this problem, network protocols are used, which continue to develop rapidly to this day.Materials and methods. SCADA systems are used in many industries: aviation, ground transportation, rocket and space technology, systems for receiving and processing telemetry information. Among them, a class of SCADA systems operating within the intranet stands out. This can be an internal network of the enterprise, a hangar or a small test stand for tracking the indexes of measuring equipment. Therefore, today, more than ever, open and publicly available materials are important for understanding modern network solutions that reduce the time spent on data transmission and their further visualization. Such information will be of particular value to students studying network and web technologies.Results. As a result of the research, taking into account the limitations of the SCADA system and network being developed, the time characteristics for the WebSocket and WebTransport protocols have been determined, and the most optimal solution for a typical load is proposed. In the presented paper, the issues of data transfer between the client and server parts for a class of SCADA systems operating within an intranet are considered. In this regard, it is proposed to consider the two most suitable solutions for this task. These are application layer network protocols of the OSI model: WebSocket and WebTransport. In addition, transport layer protocols (TCP and QUIC) are taken into account, since they can also affect time characteristics. Data transmission issues are considered in the context of the SCADA data display and monitoring system. The server part is developed using C#, and the client is developed using JavaScript. A number of experiments are carried out for boundary cases and typical loads, on the basis of which the dependence of data transmission time on their volume is determined.Conclusion. The approach given in the paper on collecting network traffic and analyzing time characteristics will also be useful as part of the educational process for teaching students in the courses “Computer Networks” and “Internet Technologies”.

Data Mining Approach for Evil Twin Attack Identification in Wi-Fi Networks

Recent cyber security solutions for wireless networks during internet open access have become critically important for personal data security. The newest WPA3 network security protocol has been used to maximize this protection; however, attackers can use an Evil Twin attack to replace a legitimate access point. The article is devoted to solving the problem of intrusion detection at the OSI model’s physical layers. To solve this, a hardware–software complex has been developed to collect information about the signal strength from Wi-Fi access points using wireless sensor networks. The collected data were supplemented with a generative algorithm considering all possible combinations of signal strength. The k-nearest neighbor model was trained on the obtained data to distinguish the signal strength of legitimate from illegitimate access points. To verify the authenticity of the data, an Evil Twin attack was physically simulated, and a machine learning model analyzed the data from the sensors. As a result, the Evil Twin attack was successfully identified based on the signal strength in the radio spectrum. The proposed model can be used in open access points as well as in large corporate and home Wi-Fi networks to detect intrusions aimed at substituting devices in the radio spectrum where IEEE 802.11 networking equipment operates.

Measured and predicted sound transmission through a laboratory concrete floor

The direct sound transmission through a simple, massive, homogeneous building element with and without lining is investigated experimentally and compared with analytical and empirical models from the literature. A 150 mm thick concrete floor and a 100 mm thick floating floor were measured in the floor transmission facility of the National Research Council Canada, i.e. without flanking sound transmission. In addition to the sound reduction index and the normalized impact sound pressure level, loss factors, radiation efficiencies, and mean squared velocities were recorded in the laboratory. The measured data is compared to established models of sound transmission. A focus is placed on the calculation model of ISO 12354-1 (Appendix B), which uses calculated radiation efficiencies and loss factors to predict the sound reduction index of heavy, homogeneous building elements. Some difficulties with the calculation model and the examples in the standard are discussed. In principle, the results in this study show that the calculation model of ISO 12354-1 gives good estimates when the correct input parameters are used. However, deviations between the calculated and the measured loss factors and radiation efficiencies have large effects on the accuracy of the estimates, particularly in the region around the coincidence frequency.

Proposed Modbus Extension Protocol and Real-Time Communication Timing Requirements for Distributed Embedded Systems

The general evolution of fieldbus systems has been variously affected by both computer electrical engineering and science. First, the main contribution undoubtedly originated from network IT systems, when the Open Systems Interconnection model was presented. This reference model with seven layers was and remains the foundation for the development of numerous advanced communication protocols. In this paper, the conducted research resulted in a major contribution; specifically, it describes the mathematical model for the Modbus protocol and defines the acquisition cycle model that corresponds to incompletely defined protocols in order to provide a timestamp and achieve temporal consistency for proposed Modbus Extension. The derived technical contribution of the authors is to exemplify the functionality of a typical industrial protocol that can be decomposed to improve the performance of data acquisition systems. Research results in this area have significant implications for innovations in industrial automation networking because of increasing distributed installations and Industrial Internet of Things (IIoT) applications.

Analisis Efektivitas Keamanan Jaringan Layer 2: Port Security, VLAN Hopping, DHCP Snooping

In the industrial era 4.0, which is marked by the rapid progress of computer networks and the internet, network security at Layer 2 is part of the Data Link Layer in the OSI model, which is very important considering the increasing number of cyber threats. This research aims to compare the effectiveness of various security algorithms applied to Layer 2 switches, namely MAC Address Filtering with Port Security, VLAN Hopping Mitigation, and DHCP Snooping. Some of these methods have the function or purpose of creating MAC address filtering, port limitations, VLAN protection, ARP, etc. The device used to conduct this research is a Cisco Switch. This research uses an experimental approach by implementing each method in different network scenarios and comparing it with external data, measuring effectiveness based on attack detection and prevention, as well as its impact on network performance, then combining several of these methods into one scope. The results show that each method has its own advantages and disadvantages, which function to block various types of attacks such as Flooding, Snooping, and Rogue DHCP. It is highly recommended to combine all security methods into one integrated system.

CLASSIFIERS OF DESTRUCTIVE IMPACTS IN DIGITAL SPACE

The digital format of public relations actualizes the issues of information security and information security. The article analyzes the normative acts containing the concepts of "destructive event" and "destructive action". They describe the sources of information threats emanating from man-made and anthropogenic sources and are associated with violations of confidentiality, accessibility and reliability of information, stability and reliability of information systems. The author came to the conclusion, as a result of the analysis conducted in the article, that the concept of "destructive actions" is more universal and defines the requirement not to take actions aimed at violating the information security of an information system and information. The concept of "destructive events" is used in a narrow technical area related to the disruption of the functioning of information systems at two levels of the OSI model - determining the route and addressing of data and communication between the endpoints of the transmitted data.

Impact of upstream buildings on Wind-Driven Rain Loading: Refining Obstruction Factor in ISO semi-empirical model based on CFD

CFD is a valuable tool for assessing Wind-Driven Rain (WDR) loading, one of the most important environmental loads for façade design. The majority of previous studies on this topic have primarily concentrated on simple building configurations, i.e., stand-alone buildings. Hence, prior findings may not be applicable to consider the impact of upstream buildings in urban areas, which significantly alter wind flow field, consequently, change WDR loadings on downstream building facades compared to the stand-alone building. Part A: four different steady-state RANS models (i.e., standard k−ω, realizable k−ε, RNG k−ε, and standard k−ε) coupled with the Eulerian Multiphase (EM) technique (RANS-EM) are compared and implemented using OpenFOAM-7. These models are validated and verified based on wind-tunnel and field measurement data obtained from the literature for a six-story mid-rise residential building located in an urban area in Vancouver, Canada. The study considers 13 distinct rainfall events, for the test building with/without overhangs. All four RANS models are deemed suitable for modeling WDR in urban areas, while the steady-state standard k-ω RANS-EM approach without incorporating turbulent dispersion showing slightly better performance, thus utilized for the reminder of the study. Part B: a sensitivity analysis is presented on how the upstream buildings influence the WDR loading on a downstream building, denoted as Obstruction Factor. A comparison between the CFD and ISO semi-empirical model shows significant discrepancies, potentially reaching up to factors of 5. Thus, updated Obstruction Factors are suggested to enhance the ISO model for more accurate estimation of WDR loads.

Next-Gen Firewalls: Enhancing Cloud Security with Generative AI

Next-generation firewalls are available and use machine learning and generative modeling to enhance the detection of hard-to-detect cyber threats. These systems incorporate advanced security controls, policies, and protocols with Layer 7 of the OSI model. This chapter updates these steep AI-based protection systems and applications.

The Guardian Node Slow DoS Detection Model for Real-Time Application in IoT Networks.

The pernicious impact of malicious Slow DoS (Denial of Service) attacks on the application layer and web-based Open Systems Interconnection model services like Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) has given impetus to a range of novel detection strategies, many of which use machine learning (ML) for computationally intensive full packet capture and post-event processing. In contrast, existing detection mechanisms, such as those found in various approaches including ML, artificial intelligence, and neural networks neither facilitate real-time detection nor consider the computational overhead within resource-constrained Internet of Things (IoT) networks. Slow DoS attacks are notoriously difficult to reliably identify, as they masquerade as legitimate application layer traffic, often resembling nodes with slow or intermittent connectivity. This means they often evade detection mechanisms because they appear as genuine node activity, which increases the likelihood of mistakenly being granted access by intrusion-detection systems. The original contribution of this paper is an innovative Guardian Node (GN) Slow DoS detection model, which analyses the two key network attributes of packet length and packet delta time in real time within a live IoT network. By designing the GN to operate within a narrow window of packet length and delta time values, accurate detection of all three main Slow DoS variants is achieved, even under the stealthiest malicious attack conditions. A unique feature of the GN model is its ability to reliably discriminate Slow DoS attack traffic from both genuine and slow nodes experiencing high latency or poor connectivity. A rigorous critical evaluation has consistently validated high, real-time detection accuracies of more than 98% for the GN model across a range of demanding traffic profiles. This performance is analogous to existing ML approaches, whilst being significantly more resource efficient, with computational and storage overheads being over 96% lower than full packet capture techniques, so it represents a very attractive alternative for deployment in resource-scarce IoT environments.

A dynamic analysis of UAV -based IoT networks for efficient communication using falcon optimization approach

Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) play a pivotal role in Internet of Things (IoT) applications by sensing data, conducting continuous surveillance, and maintaining connectivity among users. However, their high mobility and continuous surveillance for data transmission result in high energy consumption, possibly resulting in lesser network performance, including link failure, node depletion, data loss, and high delays. To address these challenges, a novel scheme termed as 'On-Demand Cross-Layered Falcon Optimization Approach (OCLFO)' has been proposed to enhance connectivity and optimize network performance in UAV-based IoT systems. The on- demand Cross-Layer Optimization (CLO) scheme facilitates data transmission across each layer of the OSI model. CLO is applied to the design of UAVs with the integration of on-demand, based on the queuing size. Falcon Optimization Approach (FOA) has been integrated with the CLO to overcome the energy consumption drawback, and provide successful data transmission between UAV users with the help of fitness value. The fitness value depends maximum on the energy and minimum on the queuing size, and this provides the energy efficient routing path for an efficient data transmission. The proposed OCLFO aims to optimize energy consumption while ensuring successful and expedited data transmission among UAV users. Simulations have been conducted using a network simulator to analyse Quality of Service (QoS) parameters, considering high mobility scenarios by varying energy levels such as 100 J and 200 J. Compared to the existing optimization algorithms, the proposed OCLFO achieves high delivery ratio, high throughput, less delay, lesser energy consumption and enhanced link efficiency.

Comparative Study Between the OSI Model and the TCP/IP Model: Architecture and Protocols in Computer Networking Systems

In the world of computing and networking, it is critical to understand the theoretical framework that underlies data communication to ensure the best performance and compatibility between various systems. Both the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) and Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) models offer a comprehensive perspective on how the entire communication operation is separated into various layers, with each layer assigned particular roles and functions. This paper compares the OSI and TCP/IP models in terms of the functionalities and responsibilities of the various layers in each model, with an emphasis on how these layers work together to ensure effective and robust network communications. The paper covers encapsulating and decapsulating processes, managing sessions, and ensuring reliable data transmission. The TCP/IP model focuses on practical application with four main layers, while the OSI model has seven detailed layers that provide a theoretical and structured approach. The goal of both models is reliable and standardized communication, which in turn promotes interoperability in a variety of network environments.

Spectrofluorimetric and smartphone-based detection methods for determination of gentamicin

This paper presents the development of spectrofluorimetric and smartphone-based detection methods for gentamicin determination using fluorescamine as a reagent. The research included selecting excitation (415 nm) and emission (489 nm) wavelengths, reaction time, and conditions like reagent concentration, and pH of the reaction medium. Moreover, the optimal operating parameters of the smartphone camera, like ISO, white balance, camera shutter, and RGB model channel were selected. Analytical parameters of the developed spectrofluorimetric and smartphone-based methods were estimated including the linear range: 0.04–15.00 mg dm−3 and 0.18–1.20 mg dm−3, respectively, limits of detection and quantification: 0.01 and 0.04 mg dm−3, and 0.06 and 0.18 mg dm−3, respectively, and precision (CV, n = 6): 5.2% and 2.8%, respectively. The proposed approaches were successfully applied to determine gentamicin in pharmaceutical samples. The obtained results were consistent with values declared by manufacturers and satisfactory recovery values, 93.2–113.6% were obtained for both spectrofluorimetric and smartphone-based methods. The developed fluorimetric method with smartphone-based detection provides a low limit of detection specific to spectrofluorimetric methods whereas the measurement system is a simple, easily accessible, compact, and low-cost device. Hence, it can become a competitive alternative to other gentamicin determination methods.Graphical abstract

Analysis of numerical simulations and semi-empirical models on distribution characteristics of wind-driven rain on low-rise building facades

Wind-driven rain (WDR) is a significant contributor to indoor moisture in buildings, directly impacting the thermal and moisture performance of facades. Previous research on WDR in China focused on a limited number of low-rise pilot buildings, whose materials, shapes, and environmental settings are not entirely representative of typical applications. Aim to improve the accuracy of WDR predictions on low-rise building facades, there is a need for assessing different WDR calculation methods under various rain events. The paper presented high-resolution WDR measurements from a low-rise concrete building in Chongqing to investigate the distribution of WDR on building facades under local meteorological conditions. The study compared the performance of numerical simulations and two semi-empirical models with different meteorological data averaging techniques. The results indicated that Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) simulations using the Eulerian multiphase (EM) model more closely matched the actual catch ratio across various locations and the WDR amount across the facade, with errors ranging between 10%-25 % and 2%–23 %, respectively. Furthermore, the ISO model with weighted averaging (WA) technique outperformed others in estimating catch ratios at various locations and the WDR amount across the facade, particularly when estimating the midline catch ratio. When considering both cumuliform and stratiform rainfall, the arithmetic averaging (AA) technique was a viable method for the ASHRAE model to forecast WDR. The ISO model's predictions corresponded to 54%–81 % of the field measurements, while the ASHRAE model's estimates varied more widely, ranging from 33 % to 229 % of the measured values.

Learning real-world heterogeneous noise models with a benchmark dataset

Noise modeling is an important research field in computer vision; the design of an accurate model for imaging sensor noise depends on not only a comprehensive benchmark dataset of the real world, but also a precise design of the noise modeling algorithm. However, due to the inaccurate estimation method of noise-free images and limited shooting scenes, the current realistic datasets could not describe the diverse noise properties sufficiently. Moreover, popular parametric noise models are not sophisticated enough to characterize the real-world noise exactly. In this work, we first construct a more comprehensive dataset of the real world by capturing more indoor and outdoor scenes under different lighting conditions using diverse smartphones, then we propose a non-parametric noise estimation method capable of modeling the spatial heterogeneity of real-world noise patterns. Specifically, in order to characterize the spatial heterogeneity of real-world noise, we assume a non-i.i.d Gaussian distribution and propose a deep convolutional neural network (DCNN)-based approach for learning pixel-wise noise variance maps. To learn the pixel-wise variance map, we have constructed a variance estimation network mapping from the conditional signals (clean image, ISO, and camera model) to surrogate labels obtained from the nonlocal search of similar patches from the clean-noisy image pair. Finally, we conducted denoising and classification experiments using different kinds of simulated noisy images, compared to the Poisson-Gaussian and Noise Flow noise models, the proposed method achieves denoising performance improvements (PSNR) of 1.13 dB and 2.51 dB respectively on the proposed real-world test dataset, denoising and classification results on the real noisy data captured by mobile phones have verified that our approach is more accurate than current noise modeling methods.

Energy Efficient AODV routing protocols for FANETs

All system units in flying UAV like transmitter, receiver equipment, control unit, information processing unit and payloads are powered by in build power sources. UAVs equipped with the limited on-board energy capability restrict the flying time, which will significantly affect the performance of a FANETs. Optimizing the energy consumption among nodes is one of the important research challenges. Optimization techniques for energy usage can be implemented at different OSI layer level. In our study we focused on OSI networks layers solution for performance improvements based on energy efficient routing techniques in flying ad hoc network environments. Routing algorithm that is used in MANETs applications can be optimized and used in FANETS as in both networks majority of the operational characteristics similar. But Few characteristics in FANETs like distance coverage, node mobility velocity, capacity and types of power supply used differentiate from other mobiles networks (VANETs,MANETs). During first phase of our work we evaluated the performance of classical routing protocols AODV, DSR, DSDV in FANETs using energy metrics. Result in first phase revel that AODV performance is superior to other protocols in FANETs. In second phase we designed EEAODV protocols which use energy metrics in addition to hop count for path optimization. Finally details performance comparison study between EEAODV and AODV performed, the result shows that EEAODV performance is much better that AODV. For our performance evaluation we used NS-3 simulator and random waypoint mobility models.