Open Systems Interconnection Model Research Articles

Split Hop Penalty for Transmission Quality Metrics in a Better Approach to Mobile Ad Hoc Networking (BATMAN) for IoT-Based MANET

Various routing protocols have been developed for wireless ad hoc networks to shift from infrastructure-based networks to self-controlling and self-configurable networks. These ad hoc networks are easy to implement and have plenty of application in the fields of healthcare, transportation, smart cities, etc. Although almost all of the routing protocols work on the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model’s network layer, a few routing protocols support routing on the data link layer of the OSI model rather than the conventional one. One of these routing protocols include the Better Approach To Mobile Ad Hoc Networking (BATMAN). Though BATMAN is a comparably new routing protocol and included in the Linux kernel, it suffers from performance deterioration and latency issues that need to be addressed especially in the Internet of Things (IoT). This paper presents a symmetry-based split hop penalty for BATMAN version 4 to improve the network’s performance in multi-hop scenarios. Split hop penalty defines two different sets of penalties to accommodate the routing protocol metric based on the interface media type. The experiments were conducted within the campus building of the university with physical nodes, and the obtained results highlight that overall performance is improved in terms of throughput, latency, and jitter while no performance gain is measured in packet loss and routing loops that are still present.

Hybridization of OFDMand Physical Layer Techniques for Information Security in Wireless System

Due to quest for high data rate, reliable and secure communication, this has motivated both wired and wireless network access service providers to deploy a next-generation network with ability to meet the required need. The use orthogonal frequency division multiplexing(OFDM) enables reliable transmission of various data traffic by optimizing subcarrier, power, and allocation of bits among different users. Traditionally, securing data in wireless system is always at the upper layer of open system interconnection(OSI) Model by using data encryption techniques. However, such techniques may not be acceptable for future decentralized networks due to their high complexity in implementation and computation. In this work, an OFDM IEEE 802.11a wireless system is used and physical layer encryption (PLE) schemes are implemented in securing the information transfer between two legitimate parties. In the simulation, the source data are encrypted by obfuscation with dummy data in between the encrypted data of which 52 subcarriers were considered of which 25 subcarriers are reserved for dummy data and 27 were for data. The simulation was conducted for four different modulation techniques i.e., BPSK, QPSK, 16 QAM, and 64 QAM. The result obtained shown that for all the modulation schemes, the key rate increases with an increase in the reserved subcarrier bits. Also ,the security level increased when substantial percentages of the subcarriers are reserved for dummy data

A seven-layer model with checklists for standardising fairness assessment throughout the AI lifecycle

Problem statement: Standardisation of AI fairness rules and benchmarks is challenging because AI fairness and other ethical requirements depend on multiple factors, such as context, usage case, type of the AI system, and so on. In this paper, we elaborate that the AI system is prone to biases at every stage of its lifecycle, from inception to its use, and that all stages require due attention for mitigating AI bias. We need a standardised approach to handle AI fairness at every stage. Gap analysis: While AI fairness is a hot research topic, a holistic strategy for AI fairness is generally missing. The AI fairness assessment is often developer-centric. Standard processes are required for independent audits for the benefit of other stakeholders. Also, most researchers focus only on a few facets of AI model-building. Peer review shows a focus on biases in the datasets, fairness metrics, and algorithmic bias. In the process, other aspects affecting AI fairness get ignored. The solution proposed: We propose a comprehensive approach in the form of a novel seven-layer model, inspired by the Open System Interconnection (OSI) model, to standardise AI fairness handling. Despite the differences in the various aspects, most AI systems have similar model-building stages. The proposed model splits the AI system lifecycle into seven abstraction layers, each corresponding to a well-defined AI model-building or usage stage. We also provide checklists for each layer and deliberate on potential sources of bias in each layer and their mitigation methodologies. This work will facilitate layer-wise standardisation of AI fairness rules and benchmarking parameters.

A Novel Cross-Layer Adaptive Fuzzy-Based Ad Hoc On-Demand Distance Vector Routing Protocol for MANETs

One of the essential processes in Mobile Ad hoc Networks (MANETs) is blind flooding to discover routes between source and destination mobile nodes. As the density of nodes in the network increases, the number of broadcast packets increases exponentially. This can lead to broadcast storms, a drain on the device’s battery, and reduced network efficiency. We propose a Cross-layer Adaptive Fuzzy-based Ad hoc On-Demand Distance Vector routing protocol (CLAF-AODV) to minimize the routing broadcast traffic by considering the quality of service (QoS) (e.g. delay, throughput, packet loss), stability, and adaptability of the network. The suggested method employs two-level fuzzy logic and a cross-layer design approach to select the appropriate nodes with a higher probability of participating in broadcasting by considering parameters from the three first layers of the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model to achieve a quality of service, stability, and adaptability. It not only investigates the quality of the node and the network density around the node to make a decision but also investigates the path that the broadcast packet traveled to reach this node. Simulation results reveal that our proposed protocol reduces the number of broadcast packets and significantly improves network performance with respect to throughput, packet loss, normalized routing load, collision rate, and average energy consumption compared to the standard AODV and the Fixed Probability AODV (FP-AODV) algorithms.

Efficient addressing schemes for internet of things

The internet of things (IoT) defines the connectivity of physical devices to provide the machine to machine communication. This communication is achieved through various wireless standards for sensor node connectivity. The IoT calls from the formation of various wireless sensor nodes (WSNs) in a network. The existing neighborhood discovery method had the disadvantage of time complexity to calculate the cluster distance. Our proposed method rectifies this issue and gives accurate execution time. This paper proposed mobility management system based on proxy mobile IPv6 as distributed PMIPv6 with constrained application protocol (CoAP-DPMIP) and PMIPv6 with constrained application protocol (CoAP-PMIP). It also provides the optimized transmission path to reduce the delay handover in IoT network. The PMIPv6 described the IPv6 address of mobile sensor device for efficient mobility management. The network architecture explains three protocol layers of open systems interconnection model (OSI model). The OSI layers are data link layer, network layer and transport layer. We have proposed the distance estimation algorithm for efficient data frames transmission. This paper mainly focuses the secure data transmission with minimum loss of error. The evaluation result proved that proposed technique performance with delay, energy, throughput and packet delivery ratio (PDR). Also, it measures the computational time very effectively.

АНАЛІЗ МЕТОДІВ СТЕГАНОГРАФІЧНОЇ ПЕРЕДАЧІ ДАНИХ В ІНФОРМАЦІЙНИХ ТЕЛЕКОМУНІКАЦІЙНИХ МЕРЕЖАХ

Recently, network steganography methods based on the use of structural properties of OSI (Open System Interconnection) protocols have been widely used to mask the fact of information transmission in information and telecommunication networks. This allows to covertly transmit important data based on background traffic, without significantly reducing the data rate in the base (open) channel. With the correct choice of properties (groups of properties) of the protocol (protocols) of the OSI model, the methods of network steganography do not allow the steganoanalyst to detect the fact of hidden data transmission. In network steganography, the process of detecting hidden data transmission is based on the analysis of the protocol characteristics of the used protocols of the OSI model for compliance with standards. When using protocols of channel and network levels of the OSI model, as a technological basis for organizing a hidden data transmission channel, concealment is carried out by placing data, the fact of transmission of which must be hidden, in the visible fields of the headers of the corresponding protocols, i.e. in open form. Due to the fact that the IP encryption technology covers only the payload of network layer protocols, it is advisable to use transport layer protocols of the OSI model. At this level, the TCP protocol is the most common, and it is standardized and used by opposing parties, including the military. The paper analyzes the current state of hidden data transmission in public information telecommunications networks and methods of steganographic data transmission in information and telecommunications networks. The network protocols used in information telecommunication networks were also analyzed, the concept of "network steganography" was revealed, the main task of which is to hide the very fact of message transmission in data transmission channels.

Standardization of the Distributed Ledger Technology cybersecurity stack for power and energy applications

The global trend toward integration of distributed energy resources is opening doors to advanced, complex, and distributed marketplaces. Such advanced ecosystems, where utility-owned and non utility-owned assets can contribute toward grid operations, generally require distributed communication and grid architectures. We posit the potential of using Distributed Ledger Technologies (DLTs) in supporting such applications, although their full potential has not been fully used, for example in designing long-term scalable solutions in operational technology applications. This is partly due to the lack of standardization across and between different DLTs, as well as other supporting building blocks (e.g., communication protocols). This paper attempts to address this gap by proposing a DLT cybersecurity stack specifically designed for researchers, DLT technology developers, and end users (such as utilities). The DLT cybersecurity stack has been notionally mapped to related cybersecurity components, namely the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model, the Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) suite, and existing Smart Grid architecture frameworks. In addition, the paper discusses several cybersecurity implications, and demonstrates the potential uses of the DLT cybersecurity stack through multiple power and energy use cases. It is important to note that the stack can be also applied to the DLT use cases that are outside the power and energy domain. This work was performed by the Cybersecurity Task Force under the IEEE P2418.5 Blockchain for Energy Standard working group that part of the IEEE Power and Energy Society’s Smart Buildings, Loads, and Customer Systems (SBLC) technical committee.

GPS Week Number Rollover Timestamp Complement.

Global Positioning System (GPS) is a global navigation satellite system and the most common satellite system used in navigation and tracking devices. The phenomenon of week number rollover happened recently—a year ago—due to a design limitation in the week number variable that counting weeks which causes vast losses. As many fleet management systems depend on GPS raw data, such systems stopped working due to inaccurate data provided by GPS receivers. In this paper, we propose a technical and mathematical analysis for the GPS week number rollover phenomenon and suggest a solution to avoid the resulting damage to other subsystems that depend on the GPS device’s raw data. In addition, this paper seeks to provide precautionary measures to deal with the problem proactively. The Open Systems Interconnection model (OSI) and transport layer level solution that has been suggested depends on a TCP packet reforming tool that re-formats the value of the week number according to a mathematical model based on a timestamp complement. At the level of the database, a solution is also suggested which uses triggers. A hardware-level solution is suggested by applying a timestamp complement over the GPS internal controller. Complete testing is applied for all suggested solutions using actual data provided by Traklink—a leading company in navigation and fleet management solutions. After testing, it is evident that the transport layer level solution was the most effective in terms of speed, efficiency, accuracy, cost, and complexity. Applying a transport layer level complement mathematical model can fix the consequences of GPS week number rollover and provide stability to all subsystems that used GPS data from infected devices.

Scalable and secure SDN based ethernet architecture by suppressing broadcast traffic

Ethernet is one of the widespread protocols residing in the second layer of the seven-layers Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model. Ethernet offers various advantages which enable its widespread use in all types of network topology and becomes an essential part of computer and network architecture. Despite its features, Ethernet suffers from scalability issues where the increasing number of hosts in a single broadcast domain will significantly expand the broadcast traffic in the network. Since the emergence of software-defined networking (SDN), researchers exploited various attractive features of SDN to suppress the broadcast traffic. Although capable in addressing the scalability issue of Ethernet, the existing SDN based solutions are lacking of security mechanism, which may expose the network to various ARP based attacks. Owing to this issue, this paper proposes a floodless and secure mechanism to suppress broadcast traffic. In general, the proposed solution utilizes SDN architecture and accommodates a multistage security algorithm. The multistage security algorithm consists of three stages; each stage incorporates specific analysis to identify the packet status or behavior, and react accordingly based on its status. To demonstrate the efficiency of the proposed solution, several ARP based attack scenarios are generated and evaluated using Mininet emulator. The performance evaluation indicates that the true positive ratio for attack detection in the proposed solution is 57.14% for the first stage, 66.66% for the second stage, and in some cases may achieve 100% for the final stage.

International communication system of acupuncture-moxibustion based on OSI model

Borrowing the open system interconnection (OSI) model of internet protocol and the 5W theory in communication studies, the links in the international communication of acupuncture-moxibustion can be classified into seven layers: physical layer, data link layer, network layer, transport layer, session layer, presentation layer and application layer, therefore it is built an OSI model of international communication system of acupuncture-moxibustion. It is pointed out that present international communication system of acupuncture-moxibustion is similar to the user datagram protocol (UDP) in internet technology. Evidence-based medicine (EBM) plays a key role to modernize acupuncture- moxibustion theory based upon its clinical effects. According to phenomenon-taking by classified analogy, it is found that the PICO model of EBM agrees pretty well with the "three-way handshakes" mechanism of the internet transmission control protocol (TCP), which is promising to construct an international discourse of acupuncture-moxibustion compatible with western medicine. Thus it will benefit to explore the scientific connotation of acupuncture-moxibustion theory and significantly improve the international prestige of acupuncture-moxibustion.

Smart Grid Communication Using Open Smart Grid Protocol

The smart grid transfers electricity from power utilities to the customers’ end using full-duplex digital communication technology and helps us to control the home appliances and factory machines to save electricity while reducing costs and increasing reliability and transparency. So, in order to ensure the grid reliability, we need to monitor and control the smart me-ters by means of data transfer and command signals on the single power line without using any other communication media to improve the cost-effectiveness of the proposed study. This paper proposes a hardware implementation of a Power Line Communication (PLC) protocol named Open Smart Grid Protocol (OSGP). This protocol is based on the Open System Interconnection (OSI) model. The proposed system comprises monitoring and controlling server (Lap-top/Desktop), power line communication modem, two PIC18f4520 microcontrollers, one energy meter and power line as transmission media. This protocol is first implemented on a server in C-sharp by using the OSI model approach, and then on micro-controllers in order to control the energy meter. The power line communication modem is used to send and receive the data between the server and the energy meter. Finally, results are presented to validate the hardware implementation of the protocol.

An Introduction to Cybersecurity at Physical Layer: Obstacles at Radio Channel to Mitigate Hackers’ Chance

Cybersecurity commonly focuses on higher layers of Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model, as it is a discipline associated to Computer Science. However, physical layer is the front line of the defence of a system against external attacks, and Electrical Engineering, concretely Radiofrequency Engineering, can provide tools to reinforce radio networks also in terms of information security. This paper analyses different techniques related to site shielding. From hard traditional shielding, similar to Faraday cages, to different soft shielding solutions as vegetation fences and frequency selective surfaces (FSS), the variety of solutions is broad and would be useful in actual deployments. Finally, Building Information Modelling (BIM) appears as an interesting tool that could be incorporated along the design and construction of an office building to improve the electromagnetic behaviour, and subsequently the cybersecurity issues of the communication networks hosted by the building itself.

Scheduling and resources allocation in network traffic using multiobjective, multiuser joint traffic engineering

Reciprocal optimality is a desirable characteristic from the end user perspective, for both Best Effort and Quality of Service (QoS) datagrams delivery within a network. A cohesive solution to such issues is the expected outcome of this work. It is also aimed to formulate and evaluate enhanced scheduling algorithm for packets delivery, focusing on maximal user satisfaction and minimal networking operation costs. Mathematical optimization techniques have been applied to Application, Transport and Network layers of Open System Interconnection model. Novel elucidation of optimal packets switching, traffic engineering, congestion avoidance and QoS improvements are discussed. A simplified routing mechanism is devised, along with the formulation and analysis of nonlinear constrained Multiobjective, multiuser joint traffic engineering case. This approach would be useful for networking and digital communication domains.

Vehicle communication network in intelligent transportation system based on Internet of Things

With the rapid development of modern cities, relatively backward traffic management methods, inadequate road planning and construction, and the surge in car ownership, the problem of “urban traffic congestion” has become a problem faced by modern urban management. Intelligent Transportation System (ITS) is gradually becoming the research direction for solving the problem of traffic congestion in various countries around the world. Based on the above background, the purpose of this article is to study the vehicle communication network in the intelligent transportation system based on the Internet of Things. This paper uses OPNET Modeler software to build a vehicle movement model. OPNET Modeler uses a layered network simulation method. From the perspective of the protocol, the node module complies with the OSI standard of the open system interconnection model. From bottom to top, it is the physical layer, MAC layer, ARP layer, IP encapsulation layer, IP layer, TCP layer, and service layer. In a multi-hop scenario of vehicle self-organizing network in an intelligent transportation system based on the Internet of Things, simulation experiments show that when the vehicle is running at low speed, the wireless network coverage problem of the vehicle self-organizing network on the ground, especially In terms of the design and configuration of the roadside unit, the distance of the roadside unit should be maintained between 500 m and 600 m. At this time, the overall performance of the vehicle self-organizing network is stable. AODV protocol is superior to DSR protocol in terms of throughput, average network delay, routing load, packet loss rate, and average routing hops, and is more suitable for network communication needs.

Analysis of Seven Layered Architecture of Osi Model

A Computer network is an association of network devices to data communication. Various networks are associated together to shape an internetwork. OSI is an open access system interconnection reference model, is a generally excellent arrangement characterized protocol determinations. OSI model has seven layers; each layer can have a few sub-layers. Network reference models were created to address these difficulties. Two helpful reference models are Open System Interconnection (OSI). Transmission Control Protocol and Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) fill in as protocol design subtleties the communication between applications on network devices.

Innovative Telecommunications Training through Flexible Radio Platforms

The ever-changing telecommunication industry is in severe need of a highly-skilled workforce to shape and deploy future generation communication systems. This article presents an innovative telecommunication training that is designed to satisfy this need. The training focuses on hardware layers of the open systems interconnection model. It integrates theory, numerical modeling, and hardware implementation to ensure a complete and long-lasting understanding. The key telecommunication concepts that are covered in the fundamental training phase are detailed along with best teaching practices. In addition, the methods that enrich the learning experience, such as gamified micro-tasks and interactive use of daily telecommunication devices, are featured. The project development case studies that cultivate creative thinking and scientific interest are highlighted. Also, a well-established guideline to compose the teaching environment that emphasizes hands-on experience is provided. Therefore, the presented training can be exemplary to other institutions that share the same mission to educate the distinguished engineers of the future.

MLMAC-HEAP: A Multi-Layer MAC Protocol for Wireless Sensor Networks Powered by Ambient Energy Harvesting

Limited availability of energy is the most crucial constraint of wireless sensor networks (WSN). Most power consuming part of WSN node is transreceiver and operation of transreciever to access medium is controlled by the medium access control (MAC) sublayer of the open systems interconnection (OSI) model. In WSN, till now, most of the present MAC protocols have addressed issues related to power saving. Because of energy constraints, performance is often not a focused design parameter in these MAC protocols. However, recent advances in energy harvesting technology have made it possible to obtain energy from the environment to solve energy limitations. So in this paper, a new multi layer based MAC protocol, MLMAC-HEAP is designed for solar energy harvesting criterion considering performance as the mainly focused parameter. Performance is illustrated in terms of throughput. This paper evaluates the performance of MLMAC-HEAP as a function of energy harvesting rate and number of nodes in network and results are compared and shown to outperform well known MAC protocols. Then, the paper analyses the protocol for various traffic models. Based on application-level requirements, optimization is also done for number of layers.

Industrial IoT cross‐layer forensic investigation

Cross‐layer forensic investigation is addressed for Industrial Internet of Things (IIoT) device attacks in Critical Infrastructure (CI) applications. The operational motivation for cross‐layer investigation is provided by the desire to directly correlate bit‐level network anomaly detection with physical layer (PHY) device connectivity and/or status (normal, defective, attacked, etc.) at the time of attack. The technical motivation for developing cross‐layer techniques is motivated by (a) having considerable capability in place for Higher‐Layer Digital Forensic Information exploitation—real‐time network cyberattack and postattack analysis, (b) having considerably less capability in place for Lowest‐Layer PHY Forensic Information exploitation—the PHY domain remains largely under exploited, and (c) considering cyber‐physical integration as a means to jointly exploit higher‐layer digital and lowest‐layer PHY forensic information to maximize investigative benefit in IIoT cyber forensics. A delineation of higher‐layer digital and lowest‐layer PHY elements is provided for the standard network Open Systems Interconnection model and the specific Perdue Enterprise Reference Architecture commonly used in IIoT Industrial Control System/Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition applications. A forensics work summary is provided for each delineated area based on selected representative publications and provides the basis for presenting the envisioned cross‐layer forensic investigation.This article is categorized under: Digital and Multimedia Science > Cyber Threat Intelligence Digital and Multimedia Science > IoT Forensics

Address resolution protocol spoofing attacks and security approaches: A survey

Address resolution protocol (ARP) is a very popular communication protocol in the local area network (LAN), working under the network layer, as per the open systems interconnection (OSI) model. It is used to associate Internet protocol (IP) address to medium access control (MAC) address; hence, the IP‐MAC addresses are stored in ARP cache of any network host. ARP has weakness in authentication that an attacker can exploit to gain unauthorized access to one's sensitive data. There are some approaches that can be used against ARP spoofing attacks. These provide an efficient and secure way to mitigate ARP attacks and detect ARP poisoning that can reduce the attack. This paper will discuss: various effective approaches, security issues in ARP spoofing, and poisoning attacks.

Privacy and Security A Pedagogic Cybersecurity Framework

“Real” cybersecurity today devotes enormous effort to non-code vulnerabilities and responses. This essay proposes a Pedagogic Cybersecurity Framework (PCF) for categorizing and teaching the jumble of non-code yet vital cybersecurity topics. The PCF adds three layers beyond the traditional seven layers in the Open Systems Interconnection model. In the framework, Layer 8 is organizations, often studied in business schools. Layer 9 is government, often studied in law and public policy schools. Layer 10 is international, often studied in international relations programs. The PCF creates a 3x3 matrix that refines which institutions are involved in each area of cyber-vulnerability or response. Each of the three columns refines the sorts of institutions making the decisions. For each layer, Column A contains issues arising within the institution - the organization or nation. Column B contains issues defined by relations with other actors at that level. Column C contains issues where other limits arise from actors at the same layer of the stack. For students, the PCF provides context for how all the issues fit together, to ensure they understand the “big picture”. The framework also clarifies the scope of a cyber-curriculum. Some classes, for instance, focus primarily on how a CISO or company should manage a company’s risks (layer 8). Others are mostly about international affairs (layer 10), perhaps with discussion of national cybersecurity laws (Cell 9A). The PCF enables program directors and students to concisely describe the coverage of a cybersecurity class or curriculum. The 3x3 matrix clarifies a research agenda for those seeking to identify and mitigate non-code cyber problems. Researchers can develop an issue list for each cell, along with canonical readings to assign in general examinations. For cybersecurity practitioners, the sheer volume of issues identified in the 3x3 matrix drives home the growing significance of non-code issues – bad decisions in any part of the matrix can negatively affect cybersecurity. In sum, the PCF provides a parsimonious way to identify and develop a response to the growing number of non-code cyber risks. The 3x3 matrix visually categorizes and communicates the range of non-code cybersecurity issues. No longer can “real” cybersecurity refer only to technical measures. Instead, a large and growing amount of cyber-risk arises from problems at layers 8, 9, and 10. By extending the stack to these ten layers, we gain an effective mental model for identifying and mitigating the full range of these risks.