Open Pan Cooking Research Articles

Chemical composition and in vitro iron bioavailability of extruded and open-pan cooked germinated and ungerminated pearl whole millet “Pennisetum glaucum (L.) R. Br.”

This study aimed to evaluate the effect of extrusion and of open-pan cooking on whole germinated and non-germinated grains of pearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum L. R. Br.), on its chemical-nutritional composition and in vitro iron bioavailability. The experimental design consisted of three flours: non-germination open-pan cooked millet flour (NGOPCMF), germination open-pan cooked millet flour (GOPCMF), and extrusion cooked millet flour (ECMF). The ECMF increased the carbohydrates, iron, manganese, diosmin, and cyanidin and decreased the total dietary fiber, resistant starch, lipids, and total vitamin E, in relation to NGOPCMF. The GOPCMF increased the lysine and vitamin C and decreased the phytate, lipids, total phenolic, total vitamin E, and riboflavin concentration, in relation to NGOPCMF. Furthermore, germinated cooked millet flour and extruded millet flour improved iron availability in vitro compared to non-germinated cooked millet flour. GOPCMF and ECMF generally preserved the chemical-nutritional composition of pearl millet and improved in vitro iron bioavailability; therefore, they are nutritionally equivalent and can be used to develop pearl millet-based products.

Effect of thermal processing methods on flavonoid and isoflavone content of decorticated and whole pulses.

Legumes have always been consumed as a staple source of proteins, and they are the only dietary source of isoflavones, flavonoid class of secondary plant metabolites. Isoflavones impart physiological effects via estrogenic action in humans and hence, looked upon as potential replacement of hormone estrogen in its deficiency. Legumes are an integral part of the Indian staple diet. Legumes are processed by soaking, germination, and thermal cooking. These methods have been reported to modify the nutrient composition of legumes. The sample population was surveyed to determine the most commonly used household processing methods. Soaking or germination followed by pressure cooking (with or without direct contact of water) or open pan cooking was found to be commonly followed by cooking practice in Indian households. Amongst the decorticated pulses, the highest cooking time was taken by chickpea (Cicer arietinum), and lentil (Lens culinaris) was cooked in the least amount of time. The pressure-cooked decorticated chickpea showed a 63% decrease in TFC and isoflavone content while open pan cooking lowered TFC of chickpea up to 67% and isoflavone content up to 90%. TFC of pressure-cooked and open-pan cooked decorticated lentil was only reduced by 12-17%, while isoflavone content showed 60-80% depletion. TFC of whole legumes was reduced by 30-40% on pressure cooking as well as open pan cooking; however, isoflavone content was variably affected. The black-eyed pea and desi chickpea showed 40% reduced isoflavone content while the loss of isoflavone content was 70% for kidney bean. Germination of green gram significantly increased the TFC and isoflavones, which showed a decrease of 24% and 44%, respectively, on pressure cooking.

Effect of Cooking Methods on Ascorbic Acid Destruction of Green Leafy Vegetables

Ascorbic acid is highly sensitive vitamin to various modes of cooking processes. Ethiopian green collards (Brassica carinata), locally called Ye’abesha Gomen, and cabbage (Brassica oleracea) are important green vegetables for ascorbic acid source in the country. The rate of ascorbic acid degradation in cabbage and Ethiopian green collard was studied employing two processing methods: open-pan and pressure cooking which are highly customized in household cooking. Samples were cooked at 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, and 35 min under each processing method. Ascorbic acid concentration in each sample was determined by using a spectrophotometer at 520 nm wavelength using the standard plot of pure ascorbic acid solution. The initial concentration of ascorbic acid in fresh cabbage and Ethiopian green collard were found to be 33.76 ± 0.58 and 38.14 ± 0.19 mg/100 g, respectively. Well-cooked and edible Ethiopian green collard was obtained at 10 minutes of cooking time by pressure cooking with ascorbic acid retention of 31.8% from its initial contents. However, a cooking time of 25 min was required by the open-pan cooking method with 26.8% ascorbic acid retention. Edible cabbage was attained at 10 and 20 minutes of cooking time by pressure and open-pan cooking methods maintaining 36.9 and 30.9% of ascorbic acid, respectively. Thus, the pressure cooking method required short cooking time for having well-cooked and edible green leafy vegetable with better ascorbic acid retention. The outputs of this work would be helpful to design and control practical thermal processing situations and to minimize the loss of ascorbic acid in green leafy vegetables.

Persistence of tetraniliprole and reduction in its residues by various culinary practices in tomato in India.

A field experiment was conducted to study the persistence and dissipation pattern of a new molecule tetraniliprole on tomato fruits and soil. Tetraniliprole was sprayed at the rate of 60 g a.i. ha-1 and 120 g a.i. ha-1on the tomato crop. Tomato fruit samples were analyzed as per the method described by Bosta and Nageswara (Asian J Res Chem 8:383-388, 2015). The residues of tetraniliprole and its metabolite chinazolinon were estimated on HPLC equipped with RP C18 column and photo diode array detector. Initial deposits of tetraniliprole were 0.865 and 1.747 mg kg-1 on fruits and 0.092 and 0.177 mg kg-1 in the soil, respectively, from the two treatments at the rate 60 g a.i. ha-1 and 120 g a.i. ha-1. The residues on fruits dissipated to half in 2.7 and 3.49 days, respectively. Based on the persistence studies, a waiting period of 15 days is suggested on tomato fruit from consumer's safety point of view. The pesticide residues, left to a variable extent in the tomato after harvesting, are beyond the control of consumers and have deleterious effects on human health; hence, their residues reduction by various culinary processes were highlighted. Treated tomato fruit samples collected at 1, 3, and 5 days after application were also subjected to common household practices. Washing of tomato fruits by tap, lukewarm, and saline water reduce tetraniliprole residues up to 37.63, 44.67, and 61.49%, respectively. Microwave cooking of tomato provided >12% better relief from tetraniliprole residues in comparison with open pan cooking of 72.21%. Chinazolinon residues, a metabolite of tetraniliprole, were not detected in any analyzed processed tomato fruit sample.

Impacts of ohmic heating on decorticated and whole pearl millet grains compared to open-pan cooking

The effects of two cooking methods, ohmic heating (OH) and conventional open-pan (CONV) on the cooking yield, texture profile analysis (TPA), color parameters, water absorption (WAI), solubility index (WSI) and pasting properties (RVA) of pearl millet grains (Pennisetum glaucum (L.) R. Br.) were investigated. Whole grains were pre-processed by mechanical decortication for 5 min to obtain a 9.1% degree of decortication. The optimum cooking times (OCT) of the whole and decorticated grains were 30 min and 20 min, respectively. The grains were cooked by the OH and CONV methods using a millet-water ratio of 1:2. The OH cooking yield was lower than CONV. The OH cooking did not soften the grains faster than CONV cooking. OH affected the TPA and color of decorticated grains significantly, resulting in greater L* than the CONV-Decorticated. OH did not affect WAI and WSI in comparison to CONV method. The paste viscosity profiles of whole and decorticated grains cooked by both heating methods were similar indicating a comparable effect of starch conversion. This research shows that the main factor affecting the cooking process was the pericarp of the grain rather than the heating method.

Degradation of colour in beetroot (Beta vulgaris L.): a kinetics study.

The kinetics of colour (measured as Hunter 'a/b' value) degradation in beetroot puree (Beta vulgaris L.) was studied over a temperature range of 50-120°C (isothermal process), and also during normal open pan cooking, pressure-cooking and a newly developed and patented fuel-efficient 'EcoCooker' (non-isothermal heating process). The degradation of visual colour as measured as Hunter 'a/b' value was found to follow a first order kinetics, where the rate constant increased with an increase in the temperature. The temperature dependence of degradation was adequately modeled by Arrhenius equation. A mathematical model has been developed using the kinetic parameters obtained from the isothermal experiments to predict the losses of color in the non-isothermal heating/processing method based on the time-temperature data for each of the methods. The results obtained indicate a colour degradation of similar magnitude in all the three modes of cooking used in the study.

Development of Efficient Designs of Cooking Systems. I. Experimental

In the conventional cooking practice, where a pot or a pan is directly placed on a flame, the thermal energy efficiency is in the range of 10–25%. It was thought desirable to increase this efficiency up to 60% or more. The cooking systems can be of various sizes. In the developing world (85% of the world’s population), open pan cooking is largely still practiced at the family level (4–10 people) or at the community level (50–2000 people or more). The latter requirement is encountered in schools, homes for senior citizens, jails, social and/or religious centers (temples, mosques, churches), social and/or educational functions (conferences, marriages, celebrations, etc.), remand homes, etc. For these different types of final application, in the present work, cooking systems have been developed. A systematic work has has been reported regarding the effect of several parameters on thermal efficiency. The parameters include the cooker size, number of pots, size and aspect ratio of the pots, heat flux, flame size, flux–time relationship, insulating alternatives, etc. Local and global optima of the parameters have been obtained, resulting in thermal efficiency of about 70%.

Development of Efficient Designs of Cooking Systems. III. Kinetics of Cooking and Quality of Cooked Food, Including Nutrients, Anti-Nutrients, Taste, and Flavor

Part III of the series on cooking systems presents a qualitative description of cooking methods such as open pan cooking, pressure cooking, steam cooking, solar energy-based cooking, microwave cooking, etc. A large number of chemical and physical changes occur during the process of cooking. These changes have been comprehensively covered in published literature including some textbooks. An attempt has been made to discuss a brief coherent description regarding the changes occurring in starches, proteins, fats, etc. The kinetics of the cooking reaction has also been investigated. This information can be advantageously employed for developing a protocol for an optimum temperature–time program. Because the cooking process is practically thermally neutral, a good scope is available for the optimization of energy supply. It was also thought desirable to understand the kinetics of degradation of proteins, vitamins, anti-nutrients, and flavors in different cooking practices, including microwave ovens and pressur...

Kinetic Modelling of Colour Degradation in Tomato Puree (Lycopersicon esculentum L.)

The kinetics of colour (measured as Hunter ‘a’ value) degradation in tomato puree (Lycopersicon esculentum L.) has been studied over a temperature range of 50–120 °C (isothermal condition), and also during normal open pan cooking, pressure cooking and cooking in a newly developed and patented fuel-efficient ‘EcoCooker’ (non-isothermal condition). The degradation of colour as measured by Hunter ‘a’ value was found to follow first order kinetics. The temperature dependence of degradation was adequately modelled by Arrhenius equation. A mathematical model has been developed using the isothermal parameters obtained to predict correctly the losses of red colour from the time–temperature data of non-isothermal heating/processing method. The results obtained indicate a colour degradation of similar magnitude in all the three modes of cooking used in the study.

A study on degradation kinetics of niacin in potato ( Solanum tuberosum L.)

The kinetics of niacin degradation in potato ( Solanum tuberosum L.) as well as in pure niacin solutions at initial concentrations present in potato has been studied over a temperature range of 50–120 °C (isothermal process). Niacin degradation followed first-order kinetics, where the rate constant increased with an increase in the temperature. The temperature dependence of degradation was adequately modeled by the Arrhenius equation. The degradation kinetics of niacin in normal open pan cooking, pressure-cooking and a newly developed and patented fuel-efficient “EcoCooker” has also been studied (non-isothermal process). A mathematical model has been developed using the isothermal kinetic parameters obtained to predict the losses of niacin from the time–temperature data of the non-isothermal heating/cooking process. The results obtained indicate a niacin degradation of a similar magnitude in all three modes of cooking used in the study.

Kinetic modelling of texture development in potato cubes ( Solanum tuberosum L.), green gram whole ( Vigna radiate L.) and red gram splits ( Cajanus cajan L.)

Texture is one of the most important quality parameter, which influences the acceptability of food products. The kinetics of texture development which was evaluated using a Stevens-LFRA Texture Analyzer in terms load in grams, has been studied over a temperature range of 50–120 °C (isothermal process), and also during normal open pan cooking, pressure-cooking and a cooking in a newly developed and patented fuel-efficient ‘EcoCooker’ (non-isothermal heating process). The texture development followed first order kinetics in potato cubes, whole green gram and red gram splits, the food samples used in this study. A mathematical model was developed using the rate constants of texture development at fixed temperatures and the time–temperature profile of the processing method.

Degradation kinetics of folic acid in cowpea (Vigna catjang L.) during cooking

Kinetics of folic acid degradation in cowpea (Vigna catjang L.) as well as in pure folic acid solutions at initial concentrations present in cowpea over a temperature range of 50–120°C (isothermal conditions) followed first order reaction kinetics, where the rate constant increased with an increase in temperature. The temperature dependence of degradation was adequately modeled by Arrhenius equation. The degradation was also evaluated in normal open pan cooking, pressure-cooking and a newly developed and patented fuel-efficient Eco Cooker (non-isothermal heating process). A mathematical model was developed using the isothermal kinetic parameters obtained to predict the losses of folic acid from the time–temperature data of the non-isothermal heat processing method. The results obtained indicate the folic acid degradation is of a similar order of magnitude in all the methods of cooking.

A study on degradation kinetics of ascorbic acid in amla (Phyllanthus emblica L.) during cooking

The kinetics of ascorbic acid degradation in amla (Phyllanthus emblica L.) as well as in pure ascorbic acid solutions at initial concentrations present in amla over a temperature range of 50–120°C (steady-state temperature) has been studied. The ascorbic acid degradation followed first-order reaction kinetics where the rate constant increased with an increase in temperature. The temperature dependence of degradation was adequately modeled by the Arrhenius equation. The activation energies were found to be 4.09 kcal/mole for amla and 4.49 kcal/mole for pure vitamin solution. The degradation kinetics of ascorbic acid was also evaluated in normal open pan cooking, pressure-cooking and a newly developed and patented fuel-efficient EcoCooker (unsteady state heating process). A mathematical model was developed using the steady-state kinetic parameters obtained to predict the losses of ascorbic acid from the time–temperature data of the unsteady state heating processing method. The results obtained indicate the ascorbic acid degradation is of a similar order of magnitude in all the methods of cooking.

A study on degradation kinetics of riboflavin in spinach ( Spinacea oleracea L.)

The kinetics of riboflavin degradation in spinach ( Spinacea oleracea L.) as well as in pure riboflavin solutions at initial concentrations present in spinach was studied over a temperature range of 50–120 °C (steady state temperature process), and during normal open pan cooking, pressure cooking and a newly developed and patented fuel-efficient ‘EcoCooker’ has also been studied (unsteady state heating process). The degradation followed first order kinetics, where the rate constant increased with an increase in the temperature. The temperature dependence of degradation was adequately modeled by Arrhenius equation. A mathematical model has been developed using the steady state kinetic parameters obtained to predict the losses of riboflavin from the time–temperature data of the unsteady state heating/cooking process. The results obtained indicate a riboflavin degradation of similar magnitude in all the three modes of cooking used in the study.

A study on degradation kinetics of riboflavin in green gram whole ( Vigna radiata L.)

The kinetics of riboflavin degradation in green gram whole ( Vigna radiata L.), as well as in pure riboflavin solutions, at initial concentrations present in green gram were studied over a temperature range of 50–120 °C (steady state temperature process). Riboflavin degradation followed first order kinetics, where the rate constant increased with an increase in the temperature. The temperature-dependence of degradation was adequately modelled by the Arrhenius equation. The degradation kinetics of riboflavin, in normal open pan cooking, pressure-cooking and a newly developed and patented fuel-efficient `Eco-cooker', were also studied (unsteady state heating process). A mathematical model, to predict the losses of riboflavin from the time–temperature data of the unsteady state heating/cooking process, has been developed using the steady state kinetic parameters obtained. The results indicate riboflavin degradation of a similar magnitude in all three modes of cooking used in the study.

A study on degradation kinetics of thiamine in red gram splits ( Cajanus cajan L.)

The kinetics of thiamine degradation in red gram splits ( Cajanus cajan L.) as well as in pure thiamine solutions (at initial concentrations present in red gram splits) have been studied at pH 4.5, 5.5 and 6.5, over a temperature range of 50–120 °C (steady state temperature process). The degradation kinetics of thiamine, in normal open pan cooking, pressure-cooking and a newly developed and patented fuel-efficient ‘eco- cooker’, have also been studied (unsteady state heating process). The thiamine degradation was observed to follow first order kinetics where the rate constant increased with an increase in the temperature. The temperature dependence of degradation was adequately modelled by the Arrhenius equation. A mathematical model has been developed, using the steady state kinetic parameters obtained, to predict the losses of thiamine from the time-temperature data of the unsteady state heating/cooking process. The results obtained indicate a thiamine degradation of similar magnitude in all the three modes of cooking used in the study.

A study on the degradation kinetics of visual green colour in spinach ( Spinacea oleracea L.) and the effect of salt therein

The effect of salt on the degradation of visual green colour ‘− a’ in spinach puree ( Spinacea oleracea L.) over a temperature range of 50–120 °C (steady state temperature process) as well as under conditions of normal open pan cooking, pressure-cooking and a newly developed and patented fuel-efficient EcoCooker has been studied (unsteady state heating process). The degradation of visual green colour as measured by ‘− a’ value followed a first order kinetics, where the rate constant increased with an increase in the temperature. The temperature dependence of degradation was adequately modeled by Arrhenius equation. A mathematical model has been developed using the steady state kinetic parameters obtained to predict the losses of green colour from the time–temperature data of the unsteady state heating/processing method. The results obtained indicate a protective effect of salt on the degradation of visual green colour.

Effect of domestic processing on flatus producing factors in ricebean(Vigna umbellata)

The effect of various processing treatments viz., soaking, pressure cooking, open pan cooking, germination followed by pressure cooking and roasting of whole ricebean and pressure cooking, open pan cooking and fermentation and frying of fermented batter of dehulled ricebean flour was assessed for total sugars and oligosaccharide contents. Dehulling caused a significant reduction in the raffinose and stachyose contents. Pre-soaking of ricebean caused appreciable losses in the oligosaccharide content. Germination (48 h) followed by pressure cooking and fermentation (18 h) followed by frying caused the maximum losses in the raffinose and stachyose contents.