Open Detonation Research Articles

Database of in-plume emission factors from open demilitarization of military ordnance

ABSTRACT A searchable database of emission factors from open burning, open detonation, and static firing of military ordnance and rocket motors has been developed and made available. Sampling and analytical results since 2010 have been compiled from seven campaigns in the USA and Canada at four different sites. Various ordnance types were used for multiple test scenarios varying location, soil covered/uncovered, metal-cased and uncased, and net explosive weight. Target compounds include, variously, particulate matter, metals, energetics, volatile organic compounds, and others. Data were primarily derived from unmanned aerial sampling methods using ordnance charge sizes and procedures representative of operational demilitarization operations. The database includes 1,212 emission factors for 39 different types of munitions and an array of pollutants where open burns accounted for 514 scenarios, static firing for 83, and open detonation for 614. The database will be of use for risk evaluations, environmental reporting requirements, and demilitarization operations.

Open burning and open detonation of explosives. Prediction of pollutant emissions

Open burning and open detonation of explosives. Prediction of pollutant emissions

Contamination characteristics of energetic compounds in soils of two different types of military demolition range in China

The pollution of energetic compounds (ECs) in military ranges has become the focus of worldwide attention. However, few studies on the contamination of ECs at Chinese military ranges have been reported to date. In this study, two different types of military demolition range in China, Dunhua (DH) and Taiyuan (TY), were investigated and the ECs in their soils were determined. 10 ECs were detected at both ranges. While all the contamination characteristics were distinct, 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene (TNT) was the most abundant contamination source in soils at DH range, with an average concentration of 1106 mg kg−1 and a maximum concentration of 34,083 mg kg−1. Hexahydro-1,3,5-trinitro-1,3,5-triazine (RDX) and two mono-amino degradation products of TNT were also found to have high concentrations, with potential ecological and human health risks. In contrast, the concentrations of ECs in soils of TY range were much lower. The content of RDX was most significant, with average and maximum concentrations of 7.8 and 158 mg kg−1, respectively. However, the potential threat to human health of 2,4-dinitrotoluene and 2,6-dinitrotoluene in soils at both ranges should not be ignored. The differences in pollution characteristics of the ECs at DH and TY are closely related to the types and amounts of the munitions destroyed. Moreover, the spatial distribution of ECs at the demolition ranges was extremely heterogeneous, which may be attributed to the use of open burning / open detonation and the non-homogeneous composition of the munitions.

Shrinking Particle Reaction Model for a Waste Double‐Base Propellant During Alkaline Hydrolysis

AbstractDouble‐base propellants are widely used in missiles and rocket engines. Waste double‐base propellants must be safely disposed of because their safety and reliability greatly deteriorate during storage and use. Alkaline hydrolysis is a promising alternative to the open burning and open detonation disposal methods of waste propellants. To promote the industrialization of the alkaline hydrolysis treatment of waste double‐base propellants, a reaction model of the alkaline hydrolysis of SC double‐base propellants was studied. First, the relationship between the concentration of nitrite‐nitrogen and nitrate‐nitrogen in the alkaline hydrolysate was studied. The results revealed that a good linear relationship between the concentration of nitrite‐nitrogen and nitrate‐nitrogen (slope is 1.771, R2 is 0.9925). The waste SC granules produce fewer nitrite ions than fresh nitrocellulose and nitroglycerin. Secondly, based on the analysis results of scanning electron microscopy, energy‐dispersive X‐ray spectroscopy, and the thickness of SC granules before and after alkaline hydrolysis, it was assumed that the reaction model was a shrinking particle reaction model, and the limiting step was the alkaline hydrolysis rate on the surface of granules. Then, the relationship between the alkaline hydrolysis degree xSC of SC granules and reaction time t was xSC=((α+2)/(2te))t‐(α/(2te2))t2 by theoretical reaction model derivation. Additionally, the reaction model and limiting step were experimentally validated. Thus, this study provides theoretical and technical support for the safe industrial deposal and resource utilization of waste SC and other double‐base propellants with nitrocellulose and nitroglycerin as basic energetic components, as well as a basis for its fundamental research.

Standoff detection of chemical plumes from high explosive open detonations using a swept-wavelength external cavity quantum cascade laser

A swept-wavelength external cavity quantum cascade laser (ECQCL) is used to perform standoff detection of combustion gases in a plume generated from an outdoor high-explosive (HE) open detonation. The swept-ECQCL system was located at a standoff distance of 830 m from a 41 kg charge of LX-14 (polymer-bonded high explosive) and was used to measure the infrared transmission/absorption through the post-detonation plume as it propagated through the beam path. The swept-ECQCL was operated continuously to record broadband absorption spectra at a 200 Hz rate over a spectral range from 2050 to 2230 cm−1 (4.48–4.88 μm). Fitting of measured spectra was used to determine time-resolved column densities of CO, CO2, H2O, and N2O. Analysis of visible video imagery was used to provide timing correlations and to estimate plume dimensions, from which gas mixing ratios were estimated. Measured emission factors and modified combustion efficiency show good agreement with previously reported values.

Decaying modes of propagation of detonation and flame front in acetylene–air mixture

Decaying modes of a flame front propagation in narrow channel for acetylene–air mixtures were investigated experimentally using optical methods of diagnostics. Experiments were carried out using an open detonation channel of square cross section with transverse dimension of 3 mm and length of 1000 mm. It was connected to the detonation tube of 20 mm diameter and length of 3000 mm. A galloping decaying propagation of the combustion inside the narrow channel after the entry of a steady Chapman–Jouguet detonation into the channel was registered. It was shown that the propagation of detonation-like galloping combustion is possible in channels of subcritical size. Evolution of the flame front velocity was obtained. The time intervals of gallops and distance intervals were measured. After the decay of the detonation wave, the average velocity of the flame front decreases first to 1000 m/s, and then to 200 m/s.

Examining the Effects of the Destroying Ammunition, Mines and Explosive Devices on the Presence of Heavy Metals in Soil of Open Detonation Pit; Part 2: Determination of Heavy Metal Fractions

As a result of the destruction of ammunition, mines, and explosive devices by the method of open detonation, the increased concentration of heavy metals is often recorded in the soil of military polygons, which is a serious ecological problem. However, in order to determine the potential risk of such locations to the environment, it is necessary to determine, in addition to the total content, the forms in which the metals are present. In this paper, a sequential extraction method was used to analyze the six fractions of five heavy metals (cadmium, lead, nickel, copper, and zinc) in the soil of the polygon for destruction of ammunition, mines, and explosive devices. Samples were collected from the place of direct detonation (so-called pits) and from the edge of the pit. The aim of this research is determination of metal speciation in order to obtain a better insight in their mobility and risk arising from this. The results showed that heavy metals are predominantly present in the residual, oxide, and organic fractions. Cd and Cu were also significantly present in the mobile fractions due to conducted activities on the polygon. To assess the potential environmental risk of soil, the risk assessment code (RAC) and individual (ICF) and global (GCF) contamination factors were used. According to the RAC, the mobility and bioavailability of the analyzed heavy metals decreases in the following order: Cd > Cu > Zn > Pb > Ni. ICF results show low to moderate risk, while GCF results show low risk in terms of heavy metal contamination in the examined area.

Examining the Effects of the Destroying Ammunition, Mines, and Explosive Devices on the Presence of Heavy Metals in Soil of Open Detonation Pit: Part 1—Pseudo-total Concentration

This paper presents the results of determining the pseudo-total concentration of five heavy metals in the soil on which the destruction of ammunition, mines, and explosive devices is carried out by the method of open detonation. In the analyzed area, the concentrations of cadmium, lead, nickel, copper, and zinc were determined, while from the physical properties of the soil were determined the granulometric composition and the pH. The aim of the study is to determine the origin and total load on heavy metals and, based on that, to assess the dangers and impact of the site in terms of the soil pollution by heavy metals. In accordance with the regulations of Bosnia and Herzegovina, the results of the soil testing showed a significant load of copper (up to seven times) and cadmium (up to six times), and exceeding the allowed values for nickel and zinc in some places. Lead was the only metal whose concentration was within the maximum allowed and according to that the soil was classified as unpolluted. A sample of soil from the edge of the pit is the only sample in which all heavy metals, except Ni, were within the maximum allowable concentration. In regard to the concentration of the examined metals, the soil of the pit is classified as medium polluted from the aspect of copper, cadmium, and nickel and highly contaminated with zinc. The concentrations of copper and zinc in the examination area correspond to contaminated soil that represents ecological risk, which requires soil remediation.

Lidar equation inversion methods and uncertainties in measuring fugitive particulate matter emission factors.

Measurements from two field campaigns that employed a micropulse lidar are used to compare the near-end and the far-end lidar equation inversion methods for estimating emission factors (EFs) of particulate matter (PM) from three types of anthropogenic fugitive sources: vehicles moving on unpaved roads, open burning, and open detonation. As optical depth increased from 0 to 2, relative EF uncertainty increased from 54% to 300% using the near-end method and decreased from 69% to 42% using the far-end method. To the best of our knowledge, this research is the first to use field measurements to compare results from these methods for anthropogenic PM plumes and quantify their uncertainties.

A small, lightweight multipollutant sensor system for ground-mobile and aerial emission sampling from open area sources

Characterizing highly dynamic, transient, and vertically lofted emissions from open area sources poses unique measurement challenges. This study developed and applied a multipollutant sensor and time-integrated sampler system for use on mobile applications such as vehicles, tethered balloons (aerostats) and unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) to determine emission factors. The system is particularly applicable to open area sources, such as forest fires, due to its light weight (3.5 kg), compact size (6.75 L), and internal power supply. The sensor system, termed “Kolibri”, consists of sensors measuring CO2 and CO, and samplers for particulate matter (PM) and volatile organic compounds (VOCs). The Kolibri is controlled by a microcontroller which can record and transfer data in real time through a radio module. Selection of the sensors was based on laboratory testing for accuracy, response delay and recovery, cross-sensitivity, and precision. The Kolibri was compared against rack-mounted continuous emissions monitoring system (CEMs) and another mobile sampling instrument (the “Flyer”) that has been used in over ten open area pollutant sampling events. Our results showed that the time series of CO, CO2, and PM2.5 concentrations measured by the Kolibri agreed well with those from the CEMs and the Flyer, with a laboratory-tested percentage error of 4.9%, 3%, and 5.8%, respectively. The VOC emission factors obtained using the Kolibri were consistent with existing literature values that relate concentration to modified combustion efficiency. The potential effect of rotor downwash on particle sampling was investigated in an indoor laboratory and the preliminary results suggested that its influence is minimal. Field application of the Kolibri sampling open detonation plumes indicated that the CO and CO2 sensors responded dynamically and their concentrations co-varied with emission transients. The Kolibri system can be applied to various challenging open area scenarios such as fires, lagoons, flares, and landfills.

Successful plant scale production of solid propellant recycling from obsolete ammunition

Solid propellant for rocket motor consists of a mixture of oxidizer with aluminum powder cured in poly-butadiene (PB) binder. Ammonium perchlorate (NH4ClO4, AP) is commonly used oxidizer in many propulsion systems as solid propellant. An aged propulsion engine of the rocket motor is discarded through the waste processing procedure by open burning or open detonation. Meanwhile, recycling AP is economically interesting issue as it is filled more than 70 % in one unit of rocket motor. Although industries and military institutes have invested in R&D to remove PB binder or recycle AP oxidizer, developed process were rarely industrialized due to economic problem. Here we report an automated, self-contained and environmentally responsible AP recovery technology which process has recently been developed and proven to be a cost-effective recycling program of obsolete ammunition.

Operationalising and incorporating ethical considerations into a tool for multi-criteria decision making

In this study, an existing method for ethical analysis was extended by adding aspects of human rights and global distributional issues as framed by the United Nations (UN) Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) and the UN Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). A procedure for incorporating these issues together with environmental, safety and cost considerations into a decision making framework using multi-criteria decision analysis (MCDA) was devised. This includes a scoring system to convert qualitative ethical issues into semi-quantitative issues. The refined framework tool was tested in an illustrative case on the destruction of ammunition. The results showed that the extended framework for ethical analysis added value, for example as a way of highlighting ethical considerations in decision making. Use of the DecideIT software with its integrated MCDA improved the analysis by allowing for uncertain and imprecise values and estimations. The illustrative case results indicated that a combined alternative including recycling of metals and energetic materials had clear advantages over open detonation.

Aerostat-based sampling of emissions from open burning and open detonation of military ordnance

Emissions from open detonation (OD), open burning (OB), and static firing (SF) of obsolete military munitions were collected using an aerostat-lofted sampling instrument maneuvered into the plumes with remotely controlled tether winches. PM2.5, PM10, metals, volatile organic compounds (VOCs), energetics, and polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) were characterized from 121 trials of three different munitions (Composition B (hereafter, “Comp B”), V453, V548), 152 trials of five different propellants (M31A1E1, M26, SPCF, Arc 451, 452A), and 12 trials with static firing of ammonium perchlorate-containing Sparrow rocket motors. Sampling was conducted with operational charge sizes and under open area conditions to determine emission levels representative of actual disposal practices. The successful application of the tethered aerostat and sampling instruments demonstrated the ability to sample for and determine the first ever emission factors for static firing of rocket motors and buried and metal-cased OD, as well as the first measurements of PM2.5 for OB and for surface OD.

Open burning and open detonation PM10 mass emission factor measurements with optical remote sensing

Emission factors (EFs) of particulate matter with aerodynamic diameter ≤10 µm (PM10) from the open burning/open detonation (OB/OD) of energetic materials were measured using a hybrid-optical remote sensing (hybrid-ORS) method. This method is based on the measurement of range-resolved PM backscattering values with a micropulse light detection and ranging (LIDAR; MPL) device. Field measurements were completed during March 2010 at Tooele Army Depot, Utah, which is an arid continental site. PM10 EFs were quantified for OB of M1 propellant and OD of 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene (TNT). EFs from this study are compared with previous OB/OD measurements reported in the literature that have been determined with point measurements either in enclosed or ambient environments, and with concurrent airborne point measurements. PM10 mass EFs, determined with the hybrid-ORS method, were 7.8 × 10−3 kg PM10/kg M1 from OB of M1 propellant, and 0.20 kg PM10/kg TNT from OD of TNT. Compared with previous results reported in the literature, the hybrid-ORS method EFs were 13% larger for OB and 174% larger for OD. Compared with the concurrent airborne measurements, EF values from the hybrid-ORS method were 37% larger for OB and 54% larger for OD. For TNT, no statistically significant differences were observed for the EFs measured during the detonation of 22.7 and 45.4 kg of TNT, supporting that the total amount of detonated mass in this mass range does not have an effect on the EFs for OD of TNT. Implications: Particulate matter (PM) in the atmosphere affects the health of humans and ecosystems, visibility, and climate. Fugitive PM emissions are not well characterized because of spatial and temporal ubiquity and heterogeneity. The hybrid-ORS method is appropriate for quantifying fugitive PM emission factors (EFs) because it captures the spatial and temporal dispersion of ground level and elevated plumes in real time, without requiring numerous point measurement devices. The method can be applied to provide an opportunity to reduce the uncertainty of fugitive PM EFs and readily update PM emissions in National Emission Inventories for a range of fugitive PM sources.

Alkaline Hydrolysis of Resin-Based Combustible Cartridge Case and Application of its Hydrolysate as Crop Fertilizer

AbstractDisposal of hazardous and toxic waste arising out of combustible cartridge case (CCC)–based explosive munitions is an environmental issue of global concern. A large quantity of CCC waste is disposed of by open burning or detonation because there is no viable waste-disposal technology that is environmentally friendly and is found suitable for bulk treatment available at present. In the present study, the process of alkaline hydrolysis of CCC composition has been studied. It is found that CCCs waste can be suitably treated and neutralized by a simple chemical process (alkaline hydrolysis) that is eco-compliant. It is possible to recover a high proportion of nitrogen (87%) from this waste. The CCC hydrolysate can be suitably used as fertilizer for crop. Pot culture studies carried out using the hydrolysate as a fertilizer on wheat seed and plant give encouraging results of the main crop performance parameters like plant biomass, yield, plant growth, and chlorophyll content.

Aerostat-lofted instrument and sampling method for determination of emissions from open area sources

An aerostat-borne instrument and sampling method was developed to characterize air samples from area sources, such as emissions from open burning. The 10 kg battery-powered instrument system, termed “the Flyer”, is lofted with a helium-filled aerostat of 4 m nominal diameter and maneuvered by means of one or two tethers. The Flyer can be configured variously for continuous CO 2 monitoring, batch sampling of semi-volatile organic compounds (SVOCs), volatile organic compounds (VOCs), black carbon, metals, and PM by size. The samplers are controlled by a trigger circuit to avoid unnecessary dilution from background sampling when not within the source plume. The aerostat/Flyer method was demonstrated by sampling emissions from open burning (OB) and open detonation (OD) of military ordnance. A carbon balance approach was used to derive emission factors that showed excellent agreement with published values.

Historic Disposal of Munitions in U.S. and European Coastal Waters, How Historic Information Can be Used in Characterizing and Managing Risk

AbstractSea disposal of wastes from industry and government was accepted internationally as a safe and efficient practice until the 1970s. Options available for addressing excess, obsolete, and unserviceable munitions prior to the 1970s were limited to salvage, destruction by open detonation or open burning, or burial on land or at sea. Sea disposal of conventional and chemical munitions and other waste material was considered appropriate until the enactment of the Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and Other Matter in 1972 and its 1996 Protocol prohibiting sea disposal of chemical and biological agents. The 1993 Chemical Weapons Convention contains a similar ban. Sea-disposed munitions pose two types of risk. These are acute—injury or death caused by either detonation or direct exposure to chemical agents—and chronic—adverse health impacts resulting from prolonged exposure to munition constituents. The type and configuration of sea-disposed munitions, disposal location, water body properties (e.g., depth, current), and its usage (e.g., commercial fishing, recreation, pipeline construction) are factors in determining the relative risk posed by munitions. The collection, analysis, and sharing of historical information allow more efficient investigation and management of risks from sea-disposed munitions.

A life cycle assessment of destruction of ammunition

The Swedish Armed Forces have large stocks of ammunition that were produced at a time when decommissioning was not considered. This ammunition will eventually become obsolete and must be destroyed, preferably with minimal impact on the environment and in a safe way for personnel. The aim of this paper is to make a comparison of the environmental impacts in a life cycle perspective of three different methods of decommissioning/destruction of ammunition, and to identify the environmental advantages and disadvantages of each of these destruction methods: open detonation; static kiln incineration with air pollution control combined with metal recycling, and a combination of incineration with air pollution control, open burning, recovery of some energetic material and metal recycling. Data used are for the specific processes and from established LCA databases. Recycling the materials in the ammunition and minimising the spread of airborne pollutants during incineration were found to be the most important factors affecting the life cycle environmental performance of the compared destruction methods. Open detonation with or without metal recycling proved to be the overall worst alternative from a life cycle perspective. The results for the static kiln and combination treatment indicate that the kind of ammunition and location of the destruction plant might determine the choice of method, since the environmental impacts from these methods are of little difference in the case of this specific grenade. Different methods for destruction of ammunition have previously been discussed from a risk and safety perspective. This is however to our knowledge the first study looking specifically on environmentally aspect in a life cycle perspective.

Metal availability in heavy metal-contaminated open burning and open detonation soil: Assessment using soil enzymes, earthworms, and chemical extractions

The effects of heavy metal contamination on soil enzyme activity and earthworm health (bioaccumulation and condition) were studied in contaminated soils collected from an formerly open burning and open detonation (OBOD) site. Soil extraction methods were also evaluated using CaCl 2 and DTPA solutions as surrogate measures of metal bioavailability and ecotoxicity. Total heavy metal content of the soils ranged from 0.45 to 9.68 mg Cd kg −1, 8.96 to 5103 mg Cu kg −1, 40.21 to 328 mg Pb kg −1, and 56.61 to 10,890 mg Zn kg −1. Elevated metal concentrations are assumed to be primarily responsible for the reduction in enzyme activities and earthworm health indices. We found significant negative relationships between CaCl 2- and DTPA-extractable metal content (Cd, Cu, and Zn) and soil enzyme activity ( P < 0.01). Therefore, it could be concluded that soil enzyme activity and metal bioaccumulation by earthworms can be used as an ecological indicator of metal availability. Furthermore, CaCl 2 and DTPA extraction methods are proved as promising, precise, and inexpensive surrogate measures of Cd, Cu, Pb, and Zn bioavailability from heavy metal-contaminated soils.

High uptake of 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene by vetiver grass – Potential for phytoremediation?

2,4,6-Trinitrotoluene (TNT) is a potent mutagen, and a Group C human carcinogen that has been widely used to produce munitions and explosives. Vast areas that have been previously used as ranges, munition burning, and open detonation sites are heavily contaminated with TNT. Conventional remediation activities in such sites are expensive and damaging to the ecosystem. Phytoremediation offers a cost-effective, environment-friendly solution, utilizing plants to extract TNT from contaminated soil. We investigated the potential use of vetiver grass ( Vetiveria zizanioides) to effectively remove TNT from contaminated solutions. Vetiver grass plants were grown in hydroponic systems containing 40 mg TNT L −1 for 8 d. Aqueous concentrations of TNT reached the method detection limit (∼1 μg L −1) within the 8-d period, demonstrating high affinity of vetiver for TNT, without any visible toxic effects. Results from this preliminary hydroponic study are encouraging, but in need of verification using TNT-contaminated soils.