Online Terrorist Research Articles

Moderating borderline content while respecting fundamental values

AbstractAs efforts to identify and remove online terrorist and violent extremist content have intensified, concern has also grown about so‐called lawful but awful content. Various options have been touted for reducing the visibility of this borderline content, including removing it from search and recommendation algorithms, downranking it and redirecting those who search for it. This article contributes to this discussion by considering the moderation of such content, in terms of three sets of values. First, definitional clarity. This is necessary to provide users with fair warning of what content is liable to moderation and to place limits on the discretion of content moderators. Yet, at present, definitions of borderline content are vague and imprecise. Second, necessity and proportionality. While downranking and removal from search and recommender algorithms should be distinguished from deplatforming, tech companies' efforts to deamplify borderline content give rise to many of the same concerns as content removal and account shutdowns. Third, transparency. While a number of platforms now publish their content moderation policies and transparency data reports, these largely focus on violative, not borderline content. Moreover, there remain questions around access to data for independent researchers and transparency at the level of the individual user.

Countering online terrorist content: A social regulation approach

AbstractAfter a period of self‐regulation, countries around the world began to implement regulations for the removal of terrorist content from tech platforms. However, much of this regulation has been criticised for a variety of reasons, most prominently for concerns of infringing free speech and creating unfair burdens for smaller platforms. In addition to this, regulation is heavily centred around content moderation, however, fails to consider or address the psychosocial risks it poses to human content moderators. This paper argues that where regulation has been heavily criticised yet continues to inspire similar regulation a new regulatory approach is required. The aim of this paper is to undertake an introductory examination of the use of a social regulation approach in three other industries (environmental protection, consumer protection and occupational health and safety) to learn and investigate new regulatory avenues that could be applied to the development of new regulation that seeks to counter terrorist content on tech platforms and is concerned with the safety of content moderators.

Measuring socio-psychological drivers of extreme violence in online terrorist manifestos: an alternative linguistic risk assessment model

ABSTRACT This paper develops a novel method of assessing the risk that online users will engage in acts of violent extremism based on linguistic markers detectable in terrorist manifestos. A comparative NLP analysis was carried out across fifteen manifestos on a scale from violent terrorist to non-violent politically moderate. We used a dictionary approach to measure the statistical significance of narratives previously identified in terrorism literature in predicting violence. The NLP analysis confirmed our research hypothesis, finding that the linguistic markers of identity fusion (an extreme form of group alignment whereby personal and group identities become functionally equivalent), dehumanising language towards the out-group and violence condoning norms were statistically significantly higher in manifestos of authors who engaged in acts of violent extremism. Building on our prior qualitative text analysis of terrorist manifestos, this study is among the first to offer a statistical analysis of the narrative patterns and associated linguistic markers distilled from terrorist manifestos. Beyond its academic contribution, the assessment framework presented here might assist security and counter-terrorism professionals in using psycholinguistic indicators to estimate the risk that online users will engage in offline violence and to make decisions on internal resource allocation in ongoing investigations.

Introduction to Special Issue: The Practicalities and Complexities of (Regulating) Online Terrorist Content Moderation

Introduction to Special Issue: The Practicalities and Complexities of (Regulating) Online Terrorist Content Moderation

Developing a Responsive Regulatory Approach to Online Terrorist Content on Tech Platforms

Tech platforms have been through several regulatory phases concerning the countering of terrorist content on their platforms: from a lack of regulation, to the government demands of self-regulation, to the present day where regulation has been implemented across the world. Much of this regulation, however, has been heavily criticised. After consideration of these criticisms, and research into regulatory approaches in a range of other industries, this article proposes a responsive regulatory approach to countering online terrorist content. Responsive regulation argues that regulation should be responsive to specific industry structure because different structures are conducive to different degrees and forms of regulation. This article categorizes tech platforms based on different compliance issues: awareness and expertise; capacity; and willingness. It then proposes four regulatory tracks in response, in order to try to mitigate the occurrence of these compliance issues.

Open-source intelligence and research on online terrorist communication: Identifying ethical and security dilemmas

This article explores key ethical and security challenges related to exploitation of open-source intelligence (OSINT) in research on online terrorist propaganda. In order to reach this objective, the most common approaches to OSINT-based projects are analysed through the lens of some of the most recognized ethical guidelines in science, which allowed several core dilemmas to be identified. First of all, this study discusses how personal data protection rules are applicable to investigations of potentially dangerous subjects, such as members and followers of Violent Extremist Organizations (VEOs). In addition, the author examines potential threats to the safety of researchers and the scientific infrastructure used in OSINT-based projects. He also discusses the risks of incidental findings and malevolent use of research results. Finally, drawing from existing legal regulations and good practices in other fields, as well as the author’s previous experience in OSINT-based analyses of online terrorist activities, this article explores basic means of tackling these dilemmas.

ISIL Terrorists and the use of social media platforms: Are offensive and proactive cyber-attacks the solution to the online presence of ISIL?

Private social media platforms are entrusted today with the task of limiting the presence of terrorist groups, such as the Islamic State, on the online scene. Through mechanisms, such as a ‘notice-and-takedown’ or a removal order, these platforms are made aware of online terrorist content and consequently remove it from their platforms. However, the responsibility to protect citizens against terrorist threats lies with states and not with private companies. To reclaim this responsibility, states could perpetrate offensive and proactive cyber-attacks on devices of terrorists located in Belgium to disable their access to information to perpetrate attacks or diminish their online presence. This article discusses the legal frameworks of these mechanisms, their advantages and disadvantages and whether the Belgian state can perform such cyber-attacks or whether it would be desirable for the Belgian authorities to receive this competence. Last, several recommendations are presented to adapt the current Belgian framework to allow the perpetration of such cyber-attacks.

A Dual Challenge to Human Rights Law: Online Terrorist Content and Governmental Orders to Remove it

A Dual Challenge to Human Rights Law: Online Terrorist Content and Governmental Orders to Remove it

Co-Producing Security: Platform Content Moderation and European Security Integration.

The European Union (EU) seeks to play a leading role in steering the private work of online content moderation, as demonstrated by numerous policy and legislative initiatives in the domain. Two initiatives, in particular, are shaping terrorist content moderation: the creation of a EU Internet Referral Unit and the adoption of a Regulation on preventing the online dissemination of terrorist content (TERREG). This article analyses these initiatives and their practical effects. In particular, it unpacks the legal and technological mechanisms at the core of EU regulation in the realm of online terrorist content moderation, and how they co‐produce security decisions across public and private spheres. Based on interviews, fieldwork observations and document analysis, we show how processes of referral and removal, and processes of flagging and filtering are key to EU‐directed content moderation. In conclusion, we reflect on content moderation as a novel form of European security integration.

Repeated and Extensive Exposure to Online Terrorist Content: Counter-Terrorism Internet Referral Unit Perceived Stresses and Strategies

U.K. Metropolitan Police Counter-Terrorism Internet Referral Unit (CTIRU) Case Officers (COs) are tasked with identifying, and facilitating the removal of material that breaches the Terrorism Act 2006. COs are extensively and repeatedly exposed to material deemed illegal and harmful (including but not restricted to graphic terrorist and non-terrorist material). However, there is little research on the impact of this work, or how COs manage and mitigate the risks of their roles. Semi-structured interviews reveal the adaptive coping mechanisms that promote good perceived health and wellbeing in CTIRU, as well as areas of concern and improvement.

Anticipated regret, terrorist behaviour & the presentation of the outcomes of attacks in the mainstream media and in terrorist group publications

Using the same executive function that allows him to plan a terrorist attack, the terrorist can consider the possibility that the outcomes of the attack will be imperfect in some way and that he will regret not having chosen a different type of attack or a different target. He can anticipate regret. In terrorism studies, a lot has been written about the relationship between the volume of media coverage accorded to terrorist attacks and incidences of terrorism. Regret theory, which is a framework for understanding how anticipated feelings of regret can influence the decision-making process, directs our attention beyond the debate over the volume of coverage in a general sense to the presentation of the outcomes of different terrorist actions. Our analysis generates suggestions for the direction that researchers might take in developing our understanding of the mechanisms by which mainstream media reporting and terrorist group publications shape terrorists' choices. • Anticipated regret shapes the decision-making process • The prospective terrorist may anticipate the regret he will feel if his terrorist actions are ignored by the mainstream media or online terrorist group publications and social networks • The implications for terrorist decision-making are explored, including the potential influence of outcome presentation on the terrorist's choice of action

Social network sustainability for transport planning with complex interconnections

Social network analysis serves as sustainable mechanism to examine large-scale complex social connections, with heterogeneity and interdependencies posing as major challenges. In our research, a novel approach is developed to efficaciously discover critical nodes, designated as network bottlenecks. The bottleneck is considered crucial in propagating the flow of information in the network. This is further extended to extraction of relative checkpoint(s) that acts as probable sources of major inflows towards the respective bottleneck. These set of checkpoints can be considered for prior surveillance resulting the control of information outbursts towards bottleneck node. Viable domains for applicability of our proposed methodology include, road traffic monitoring, extremist content tracking, fake news inspection, uncloaking online terrorist movements, etc. For our experimentation, we have focussed on transport planning application to identify traffic hotspot regions and relative set of nodes acting as checkpoints. These checkpoints can serve as monitoring stations for controlling the traffic hence improving sustainable mobility over roads. Moreover, air purifying machines can also be deployed, hence facilitating improved air quality.

A War of the Words: Assessing Liability for Online Incitement of Terrorism

Social media posts and terrorism have become inextricably linked in public analysis of recent terror incidents. Terrorist organizations rely on the internet to recruit new members, incite violence, and publicize their actions. Despite the significant reliance of terrorist organizations on social media, social media companies have inconsistently and infrequently attempted to address this usage. At present, there is insufficient domestic regulation of terrorist presence on social media, and American law struggles to adapt from the print medium to a flexible and responsive First Amendment jurisprudence of the internet age. By taking inspiration from recent German and French regulation of online terrorist activity, the United States might be able to address some of these shortcomings. The government could limit terrorist organization presence online by (1) re-defining ‘hate speech’ to include language that incites imminent terrorist action and (2) instituting a compliance regime that regulates social media companies as internet platforms. This paper proposes a course of action that could result in an online environment that stifles, rather than fosters, terrorist organization activity moving forward.

“The Lions of Tomorrow”: A News Value Analysis of Child Images in Jihadi Magazines

This article reports and discusses the results of a study that investigated photographic images of children in five online terrorist magazines to understand the roles of children in these groups. The analysis encompasses issues of Inspire, Dabiq, Jihad Recollections (JR), Azan, and Gaidi Mtanni (GM) from 2009 to 2016. The total number of images was ninety-four. A news value framework was applied that systematically investigated what values the images held that resulted in them being “newsworthy” enough to be published. This article discusses the key findings, which were that Dabiq distinguished different roles for boys and girls, portrayed fierce and prestigious boy child perpetrators, and children flourishing under the caliphate; Inspire and Azan focused on portraying children as victims of Western-backed warfare; GM portrayed children supporting the cause peacefully; and JR contained no re-occurring findings.

The Proposed Regulation on Preventing the Dissemination of Terrorist Content Online: Safeguards and Risks for Freedom of Expression

In September 2018, the European Commission released its proposal for a Regulation on preventing the dissemination of terrorist content online. As stated in the Explanatory Memorandum, terrorists ‘misuse the internet to groom and recruit supporters, to prepare and facilitate terrorist activity, to glorify in their atrocities and urge others to follow suit’. The misuse, as further explained, highlights the “particular societal responsibility” of internet platforms to protect their users from exposure to terrorist content. The Explanatory Memorandum notes that several hosting service providers have put in place certain voluntary measures to tackle terrorist content on their services. The measures, however, are not considered sufficient. The proposal, therefore, attempts to address the problem of terrorist content disseminated online by imposing certain obligations on hosting service providers. As set out in Article 1, the proposal lays down: 1) rules on duties of care to be applied by hosting service providers to prevent the dissemination of terrorist content and ensure its swift removal; and 2) a set of measures to be put in place by Member States to identify terrorist content, to enable its swift removal by hosting service providers and to facilitate cooperation between stakeholders. In particular, the proposal describes several methods to prevent dissemination of terrorist content online, for example, content referrals, removal orders, and proactive measures. Importantly, the proposal also includes a number of safeguards that attempt to prevent disproportionate interference with fundamental rights, in particular the right to freedom of expression and access to information. The aim of this paper is to analyse the proposed regulation for the prevention of online terrorist content from the perspective of the current legal framework, including the EU Charter of Fundamental Rights, and the accompanying CJEU case law. The analysis provided here is not intended to be exhaustive. Rather, the purpose of the paper is to highlight specific elements of the proposal that raise particular concerns from the perspective of the existing framework. On 3 December 2018, the EU Council released its version of the proposal (general approach). The paper focuses on the Commission’s proposal but points out relevant changes in the Council’s general approach.

Disrupting Daesh: Measuring Takedown of Online Terrorist Material and Its Impacts

This article contributes to public and policy debates on the value of social media disruption activity with respect to terrorist material. In particular, it explores aggressive account and content takedown, with the aim of accurately measuring this activity and its impacts. The major emphasis of the analysis is the so-called Islamic State (IS) and disruption of their online activity, but a catchall “Other Jihadi” category is also utilized for comparison purposes. Our findings challenge the notion that Twitter remains a conducive space for pro-IS accounts and communities to flourish. However, not all jihadists on Twitter are subject to the same high levels of disruption as IS, and we show that there is differential disruption taking place. IS’s and other jihadists’ online activity was never solely restricted to Twitter; it is just one node in a wider jihadist social media ecology. This is described and some preliminary analysis of disruption trends in this area supplied too.

Online jihadist magazines and the “religious terrorism” thesis

ABSTRACTThis article presents findings from an empirical study of 39 issues of five online terrorist magazines in order to problematise the concept of religious terrorism. The presentation of the study’s findings focuses on the magazines’ textual content, examining the types of textual item each magazine contains, how the producers of the magazines perceive the publications, the justifications the magazines offer for the groups’ activities and the motivations that underlie these activities. This analysis shows that there are important differences between the messages each group expounds. These differences, the article argues, are obscured by the homogeneous label “religious terrorism”. Moreover, an examination of these groups’ messages shows that the purported distinction between religion and politics is unsustainable and has detrimental political-normative repercussions.

#TerroristFinancing

This article describes how the internet has come to play a central role in terrorist financing endeavours. Online channels allow terrorist financiers to network with like-minded individuals, in order to increase support, raise funds, and move wealth across the international system. For instance, the Islamic State, Hezbollah, and other groups have become adept at using these channels to finance their activities. Therefore, increased examination is required of the ways in which terrorists use the internet to raise and move funds. This study assesses some of the current trends and risks associated with online terrorist financing. Some policy options are also outlined, in order to reduce the threat of terrorist financing via the internet moving into the future.

Women critical for online terrorist networks

Women critical for online terrorist networks

Terror on Our Screens: The Common Interest of Theatrical Terrorism

It has become a truism to say that just as the internet can be used as powerful tool to disseminate knowledge and break down barriers across the globe, it can equally be abused to spread the messages of hate, intolerance and fear. Terrorist groups are the leading actors in today’s internet-based drama of terror: directing amateur executions and producing a wealth of other propaganda. However, such individuals and groups are not alone in having an interest in manipulating the general public via online media. On the contrary, a state’s political desire to implement intrusive counter-terrorist and crime-fighting methods needs the support of the public. As such, the careful handling of online terrorist material can assist these aims. There is perhaps no better example than the adoption of the “War on Terror” dialogue and the accompanying dramatic reminders of the threat that exists from terrorism. The media, on the other hand, have more obvious interests in the exploitation of online terrorist propaganda: ratings, readership and revenue. The recent brutal murder of soldier Lee Rigby on the streets of Woolwich which was swamped in theatricality provided the media with an inviting opportunity to further seize the world’s attention. As such, it could be said that terrorists, states and the media all have interests in manipulating and exaggerating the theatrics of terrorism.In this paper, it will be asked whether, despite the almost universal condemnation of contemporary terrorist methods which seek to disseminate propaganda across the internet, there actually exists a common interest between the various actors in the creation and exploitation of an atmosphere of theatrics. Carefully scrutinising the overlaps and interaction between these objectives will remain of vital interest if terror from all sources is to be defeated.