On-road Motorcycle Research Articles

Traumatic spinal injury patterns of on vs. off-road motorcycle crashes

Objective Two wheel motorized vehicles used in both street transportation and recreation are a common cause of severe injury in the United States (US). To date, there has been limited data describing the spinal injury patterns among these motorcycle injury patients in the US. The goal of this study is to characterize and compare differences in specific injury patterns of patients sustaining traumatic spinal injuries after motocross (off-road) and street bike (on-road) collisions in the southwestern US at a Level I Trauma Center. Methods Trauma registry data was queried for patients sustaining a spinal injury after motorcycle collision from 2010 to 2019 at a single Level I Trauma Center. Computed tomography (CT) scan and magnetic imaging resonance imaging (MRI) reports from initial trauma evaluation were reviewed and data was manually obtained regarding injury morphology and location. Results A total of 1798 injuries were identified in 549 patients who sustained a motorcycle collision, specifically 67 off-road and 482 on-road motorcycle patients. Off-road motorcycle patients were found to be significantly younger (34.75 vs. 42.66, p = 0.00015). A total of 46.2% of the off-road injuries were determined to be from compression mechanisms, compared to 32.9% in the on-road cohort (p = 0.0027). The on-road cohort was more likely to have an injury classified as insignificant, such as transverse and spinous process fractures (60.1% vs. 42.5%, p = 00.25). There was no significant difference in regards to junctional, mobile, and semirigid spine segments between the two cohorts. Conclusions Different fracture patterns were seen between the off-road and on-road motorcycle cohorts. Off road motorcyclists experienced significantly more compression and translational injuries, while on road motorcyclists experienced more frequent insignificant injury patterns. Data on the different fracture patterns may help professionals develop safety equipment for motorcyclists.

Tyre forces estimation for off-road motorcycles

Off-road motorcycles transit over significantly irregular terrains facilitated by their suspension system. The optimisation of their suspension is an open topic. On one hand, on-road motorcycles need to be extended to consider off-road peculiarities such as larger amplitude of motion and a standing rider, to provide optimisation predictions. On the other hand, an objective methodology to verify the predictions is needed since the current practice is to rely on the subjective perception of the rider. In this article, we addressed for the first time, the second problem by developing an estimator of contact forces based on inverse dynamics equations and kinematic measurements. First, in a virtual experiment, it was verified that the estimation is satisfactory. Subsequently, using data recorded at a motocross track, we showed that the estimated forces vary consistently with the obstacles in the track. This provides an objective and consistent indication of the performance of the motorcycle and hence can be used to verify optimisations.

Police motorcycle crash casualty reports and their linkage with hospital trauma admissions in the Midland Region of New Zealand, 2012-2016

Police records, held in the Crash Analysis System (CAS) by the New Zealand Transport Agency (NZTA), and hospital admission data held in the Midland Trauma System (MTS) trauma registry, were linked using probabilistic methods. A total of 1,331 casualties resulting from motorcycle crashes on roads in the Midland Region during 2012-2016 were recorded by police. During the same period, and occurring within the same geographical area, a total of 689 on-road motorcycle related crash casualties were admitted to hospital as trauma patients. Linkage of these two datasets revealed substantial under reporting to police of motorcycle crash casualties resulting in hospitalisation. Approximately 56% (386) of hospital trauma admission records could be linked with police CAS records with an additional 303 (44%) patient admission records which could not be linked to any police records. Linkage rates were significantly associated with crash severity as recorded by police, patient injury severity recorded in the trauma registry, patient age, rurality of crash location, and self-presentation to hospital. In particular, younger motorcyclists aged under 45 years were significantly more likely to self-present to hospital with the odds of linkage for self-presenters seventeen times lower than those who did not self-present. The merging of these two datasets has highlighted several sources of bias underlying reporting of motorcycle crashes to police. An understanding of these biases may help to inform policymakers when planning wider preventive strategies designed to reduce the burden of motorcycle crashes in New Zealand.

Off-road motorcycle tyre force estimation

To improve the performance of off-road motorcycles, tyre contact forces need to be estimated. Differently to on-road motorcycle contact force estimators where the rider can be considered attached to the chassis, an off-road motorcycles estimator needs to model the rider dynamics, since driving in standing position provides significant isolation from motorcycle motion. In this article, we use a novel simple rider model to approximate the interaction with the motorcycle when no sensing on him is possible. In particular, the novelty is to keep the pitch angle of the rider constant by means of an active torque on the hip. A tyre force estimator is built using this rider model coupled to a five degree-of-freedom motorcycle, which is verified with a virtual experiment performed on Working Model 2D, showing promising results.

Does an on-road motorcycle coaching program reduce crashes in novice riders? A randomised control trial

ObjectivesMotorcycle riding is increasing globally and confers a high risk of crash-related injury and death. There is community demand for investment in rider training programs but no high-quality evidence about its effectiveness in preventing crashes. This randomised trial of an on-road rider coaching program aimed to determine its effectiveness in reducing crashes in novice motorcycle riders. MethodsBetween May 2010 and October 2012, 2399 newly-licensed provisional riders were recruited in Victoria, Australia and completed a telephone interview before randomisation to intervention or control groups. Riders in the intervention group were offered an on-road motorcycle rider coaching program which involved pre-program activities, 4h riding and facilitated discussion in small groups with a riding coach. Outcome measures were collected for all participants via telephone interviews at 3 and 12 months after program delivery (or equivalent for controls), and via linkage to police-recorded crash and offence data. The primary outcome was a composite measure of police-recorded and self-reported crashes; secondary outcomes included traffic offences, near crashes, riding exposure, and riding behaviours and motivations. ResultsFollow-up was 89% at 3 months and 88% at 12 months; 60% of the intervention group completed the program. Intention-to-treat analyses conducted in 2014 indicated no effect on crash risk at 3 months (adjusted OR 0.90, 95% CI: 0.65–1.27) or 12 months (adjusted OR 1.00, 95% CI: 0.78–1.29). Riders in the intervention group reported increased riding exposure, speeding behaviours and rider confidence. ConclusionsThere was no evidence that this on-road motorcycle rider coaching program reduced the risk of crash, and we found an increase in crash-related risk factors.

Usage of Wireless Myon 320 Surface Electromyography (sEMG) System in Recording Motorcyclist Muscle Activities on Real Roads: A Case Study

This case study was conducted to determine signal transfer challenges and limitations that researchers tend to experience while using a wireless Myon 320 sEMG system during a real on-road motorcycle riding experiment. Eight muscle groups were evaluated bilaterally involving: upper trapezius (T), triceps brachii (TB), erector spinae (ES), latissimus dorsi (LD), extensor carpi radialis (ECR), sternocleidomastoid (S), gastrocnemius (G) and biceps formaris (BF) muscle groups. One healthy male volunteer participated in this case study riding a 135cc motorcycle which was followed and monitored by a group of researchers in a van. Inconsistent signals were recorded and signal connections were lost a few times. Inability of maintaining the same speed and distance between the motorcycle and the van due to road and traffic conditions were also dangerous for both parties. Suggestively, minimizing these inconsistencies shall give better sEMG data. However, any procedures and experimental setup to minimize these inconsistencies should be observed carefully for the safety of all parties and other road users.

BTEX pollution caused by motorcycles in the megacity of HoChiMinh

Monitoring of benzene, toluene and xylenes (BTEX) was conducted along with traffic counts at 17 roadside sites in urban areas of HoChiMinh. Toluene was the most abundant substance, followed by p,m-xylenes, benzene, o-xylene and ethylbenzene. The maximum observed hour-average benzene concentration was 254 μg/m3. Motorcycles contributed to 91% of the traffic fleet. High correlations among BTEX species, between BTEX concentrations and the volume of on-road motorcycles, and between inter-species ratios in air and in gasoline indicate the motorcycle-exhaust origin of BTEX species. Daily concentrations of benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, p,m-xylenes and o-xylene were 56, 121, 21, 64 and 23 μg/m3, respectively. p,m-xylenes possess the highest ozone formation potential among the BTEX family.

Numerical and experimental investigation of passive rider effects on motorcycle weave

Despite the importance of rider passive response to the lateral dynamics of motorcycles, there is very little literature on the subject. Even more uncommon are works that consider rider passive steering impedance and its effect on motorcycle stability. Moreover, until this time, there have been no published studies on steering impedance that include correlation to on-road motorcycle stability testing. This paper explores these topics using an advanced motorcycle simulation model which includes rider torso and steering impedance values derived from experimental characterisation and anthropometric modelling. A novel method for quantitatively evaluating on-road stability is discussed and utilised to compare the simulation results to on-road weave stability testing for two different riders in the ‘hands-off’ and ‘hands-on’ the handlebars conditions. Good correlation is achieved between simulation and test indicating stability differences between riders and highlighting hands-off/on effects.

Motorcycle‐related major trauma: On‐road versus off‐road incidence and profile of cases

To describe and compare the incidence and profile of on- and off-road motorcycle-related major trauma (including death) cases across a statewide population. A review of prospectively collected data on adult, motorcycle-related major trauma cases from 2001 to 2008 was conducted. Major trauma survivors were identified from the population-based Victorian State Trauma Registry, and deaths were extracted from the National Coroners Information System. Poisson regression was used to test for increasing incidence using two measures of exposure: population of Victoria aged ≥ 16 years, and registered motorcycles. There were 1157 major trauma survivors and 344 deaths with motorcycle-related injuries over the study period. There was no change in the incidence of motorcycle-related major trauma (both survivors plus deaths) (Incident Rate ratio [IRR]= 1.14, 95% confidence interval [CI] 0.94-1.37) over the study period. Similarly, there was no change over time in the incidence of on-road motorcycle-related injury (survivors plus deaths) per 100,000 population (IRR = 1.03, 95% CI 0.84-1.27). However, the incidence of off-road motorcycle-related injury (survivors plus deaths) increased over the study period (IRR = 1.69, 95% CI 1.10-2.60). Among survivors and deaths, 882 (76%) and 301 (87.5%) cases, respectively, occurred on road. Off-road motorcycle-related major trauma has increased and this has not been targeted in injury prevention campaigns in Australia. The incidence of on-road motorcycle-related death in adults has decreased. Preventive strategies to address on-road injuries have been enforced and these are expected to lead to further reduction of on-road motorcycle crashes in the future.

Comparison of sound pressure levels of mid-to large size on-road motorcycles through volume modeling.

Noise from motorcycles varies between make and model, style, and engine size. The motorcycle’s pipe design, materials, and gearing are just a few of the factors that determine the noise being emitted. In regular traffic situations, though, an observers relative position to the motorcycle varies, and this change in position greatly affects the experience of motorcycle noise. This paper examines how noise level differs depending on ones location to a motorcycle by mapping the sound pressure level of various styles and designs of motorcycles three dimensionally. Specifically, decibel levels and frequency spectra are measured volumetrically around the motorcycle to create a three dimensional map for each motorcycle. These three dimension sound maps are then compared and evaluated for patterns of direction bias, maximum sound level, and frequency.

The role of sales of new motorcycles in a recent increase in motorcycle mortality rates

Introduction The National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) has reported that mortality rates from crashes among motorcycle riders in the United States increased from 21.0 per 100 million motorcycle miles traveled in 1997 to 38.4 per 100 million motorcycle miles traveled in 2003. At the same time, annual domestic sales of new, on-road motorcycles increased from 247,000 in 1997 to 648,000 in 2003. Method This study used data from the NHTSA Fatality Analysis Reporting System and annual sales figures for on-road motorcycles to determine if newer motorcycles were more likely to be involved in fatal crashes and if fatal crashes involving newer motorcycles could account for the mortality increase after 1997. Results Mortality rates were 7.9, 8.1, 5.4, and 2.9 per 10,000 motorcycles sold for motorcycles < 1, 1–3, 4–6, and 7–11 years old, respectively, from 1994 to 2003. Assuming complete registration, the number of motorcycles sold during the 2000–2003 time period accounted for 42.4% of the total number of motorcycles registered in 2003. Motorcycles sold during 2000–2003 were associated with 52.5% of all motorcycle deaths in 2003. The increase in the number of deaths associated with motorcycles less than four years old between 1997 and 2003 accounted for 78.1% of the total increase in motorcyclist deaths over this time period. Conclusions Two possible explanations for the association between high sales volumes and mortality rates are: (a) increased exposure from more extensive use of motorcycles when they are new; and (b) inexperience with motorcycle riding or with specific motorcycles. Impact on industry This study suggests that the deaths of growing numbers of motorcyclists are a consequence of the financial success of the motorcycle industry.

Psychological and social predictors of motorcycle use by young adult males in New Zealand

Motorcycle riding is a significant cause of serious injuries to young males. Little is known about the psychological and social characteristics of these riders, despite such knowledge being potentially important for the targeting of appropriate injury prevention interventions. Using problem-behaviour theory to broadly guide and structure the research, the present study focused on identifying predictors of motorcycle riding. Previous research investigating differences between riders and nonriders has tended to be inconclusive, methodologically limited, and lacking in explicit theoretical foundations. The present research was based on the birth cohort enrolled in the Dunedin Multidisciplinary Health and Development Study (DMHDS), a comprehensive New Zealand longitudinal study of health, development, attitudes, and behaviours. Logistic regression models were built using prior measures of health risk behaviour, other psychological and social factors, and motorcycle riding history as potential predictors of any motorcycle use at the age of 18 years. The strongest predictors were early motorcycle riding, including illegal on-road driving at age 13 (OR 4.0; 95% CI 1.7, 9.1), below average reading skills (OR 2.4; 95% CI 1.3, 4.6) and fighting in a public place at age 15 (OR 2.9; 95% CI 1.2, 6.9). It was of particular interest that this profile tended to fit less well those subgroups of riders with greatest exposure to on-road motorcycle driving. Although based on small numbers, this finding was consistent with earlier cross-sectional research that linked casual and unlicensed driving with less protective motorcycling opinions and behaviours. Some implications for injury prevention and public policies regarding motorcycling are discussed. In particular, stricter enforcement of present licensing regulations and stronger penalties for their violation could help to reduce the number of less responsible riders.