Online Choice Research Articles

Attribute commensurability and context effects in preferential choice.

Context effects in multi-alternative, multi-attribute choice are widely documented, but often elusive. We show that this elusiveness can arise in part from the way that choices are presented. To illustrate this, we use a modeling framework to predict how changes to the format of attribute values, specifically the commensurability of attribute values, influences attention allocation and consequently context effects. Guided by this framework, we show in two online choice experiments (total N = 954 adults) that manipulating the commensurability of attributes leads to different patterns of context effects. Robust attraction and compromise effects are found when attributes are incommensurable (e.g., CPU speed in GHz and RAM memory in GB, or quality ratings on different scales), and mostly null effects occur when attributes are commensurable (e.g., quality ratings on the same scale). Our findings show how the format of choice information can substantially alter the integration of that information and resulting choice patterns.

Power through design – dark patterns, personalization and the emergence of TikTok

ABSTRACT This paper examines the role of dark patterns in the context of TikTok, an emerging social media platform. Drawing on principles from behavioral economics and the existing literature on online choice architecture (OCA), the study investigates how TikTok utilizes choice architecture, namely, dark patterns to engage users and explores the potential implications for data protection, algorithmic practices and market dynamics. The paper employs the "walkthrough method" to conduct a case study, describing the TikTok user experience and mapping potential dark patterns employed by the app. Based on the case study, it discusses the challenges in classifying dark patterns (specially as it depends on the user impact) against legitimate commercial practices. Finally, it describes how dark patterns and OCA have been discussed in the Latin American legal landscape, and finally it proposes next steps for the debate based on the findings of the article..

The physical environment matters: room effects on online purchase decisions.

People as individual consumers are regularly targeted in sustainability campaigns or communications with the hope of enhancing sustainable behavior at an individual level, with subsequent sustainability transformation at a larger societal scale. However, psychological motivation is complex and campaigns need to be based on an understanding for what individual, and contextual, factors support or hinder sustainable behavioral choices. In a discrete choice experiment, participants made hypothetical online purchases in each of three rooms designed to evoke associations to hedonic, gain, and normative goal frames. Participants were shown a campaign message intended to prime sustainable textile consumption prior to the purchase. For each product (t-shirt or bananas) hedonic (comfort/look), gain (price), and normative (organic/ fairtrade) attributes were varied in an online choice experiment. Preferences for the normative attribute of t-shirts increased in the normative room compared to the room with gain associations. No effect of the rooms with hedonic or gain priming was observed on the choice. The study supports the hypothesis that the physical room can enhance goal frame activation and behavioral choice but concludes that such priming effect is sensitive to specificity of the prime.

Deceptive choice architecture and behavioral audits: A principles‐based approach

AbstractRegulators are increasingly concerned about deceptive, online choice architecture, including dark patterns and behavioral sludge. From a behavioral science perspective, fostering a regulatory environment which reduces the economic harm caused by deceptive designs, while safeguarding the benefits of well‐meaning behavioral insights, is essential. This article argues for a principles‐based approach and proposes behavioral audits as a tool to support this approach.

How to Protect Consumers in the Digital Era: An Example of the Online Choice Architecture

The ongoing process of digitalisation has brought a number of new challenges to the existing regulatory frameworks for consumer protection. One of these major challenges is the phenomenon of the online choice architecture, which is used to push consumers to make specific economic decisions while acting as participants of the digital market. In the majority of cases, such pressures should not be allowed as they rely on consumers’ vulnerability. This paper examines the phenomenon of online choice architecture and the fact that the existing consumer law framework does not provide adequate legal protection to the consumers from online choice architecture, calling for a consumer law reform that would enable better protection of consumers.

Consumers’ valuation of blockchain-based food traceability: role of consumer ethnocentrism and communication via QR codes

PurposeThis study aims to investigate the impact of consumer ethnocentrism on consumers' evaluation of blockchain-based traceability information. It also examined how the use of quick response (QR) codes for traceability affects consumers' evaluation of traceable food products.Design/methodology/approachAn online choice experiment was conducted to determine consumers' evaluation of the blockchain-based traceability of Feta cheese with a quota sample of 715 Greek consumers. Pearson bivariate correlation and mean comparison were used to examine the relationship between consumer ethnocentrism and QR use behaviour. Random parameter logit models were employed to examine consumers’ valuation of the examined attributes and interaction terms.FindingsThe results show that ethnocentric consumers are willing to pay more for blockchain-based traceability information. Ethnocentric consumers tend to scan QR codes with traceability information. Spending more time reading traceability information embedded in QR codes does not lead to a higher willingness-to-pay (WTP) for traceable food products.Practical implicationsThe findings suggest that patriotic marketing messages can draw consumers' attention to blockchain-based traceability information. The modest WTP for and low familiarity with blockchain-based traceability systems raise the need for educating consumers regarding the benefits of blockchain in traceability systems.Originality/valueThis is the first study to provide timely empirical evidence of a positive WTP for blockchain-based traceability information for a processed dairy product. This study is the first to attempt to distinguish the effects of the intention to scan QR codes and reading information embedded in QR codes on consumers’ valuation of food attributes.

A diet-related health prompt with the Swiss Food Pyramid as a nudge to reduce meat consumption

High meat consumption in Western societies is a major contributor to climate change, environmental damage, and health costs. One way to reduce meat consumption is through nudges in staff restaurants. Though previous studies have shown that nudges can influence consumer choices, there is a lack of comparative studies of the different types of nudges in the context of staff restaurants. The present study thus aimed to compare, individually and in combination, the effectiveness of a written prompt, a visual prompt (the Swiss Food Pyramid), and a dynamic social norm in encouraging consumers to more frequently choose meatless menu options. A 1 × 8 between-subjects design was applied, and an online choice experiment (n = 2198) was conducted, where the participants chose 15 times between a meat menu, a vegetarian menu, and a salad buffet. The participants who encountered the written prompt combined with the visual prompt chose the meatless option more often than those in the control condition. The written prompt contributed most to the intervention’s effectiveness. Although the effect size was small, this intervention combination is worth testing in the field, as it proved effective for all participants regardless of their psychological characteristics.

A Theory of Exploitation for Consumer Law: Online Choice Architectures, Dark Patterns, and Autonomy Violations

Commercial practices that exploit consumer behavioural biases (behavioural exploitation) are an increasingly prevalent issue in online choice architectures. EU policymakers have started to expressly regulate such practices. What remains unclear about this type of regulation is when an online choice architecture exploits biased consumers. What is the legal meaning and significance of exploitation in the digital environment? Even though the concept of exploitation is frequently used in scholarship concerning behavioural exploitation such as “dark patterns”, it is rarely defined. The concept’s normativity is mostly ignored, remains underdeveloped, and lacks solid foundations. This Article aims to close this gap by developing a theory of exploitation for (behavioural) consumer law in the EU that applies to online choice architectures and unfair commercial practices in general. The Article eschews welfare analysis and instead relies on the philosophical discourse on exploitation theory. Even though this discourse is mostly ignored by the literature, the Article submits that this analytical framework fits better with the existing goals and scheme of EU consumer law compared to an approach to legal analysis that is driven by promoting consumer welfare through market efficiency. Ultimately, the Article defends the autonomy theory of exploitation and contends that regulating behavioural exploitation in online choice architectures means regulating for autonomy.

DO HOME-BASED FOOD BUSINESS ENTREPRENEURS AWARE ABOUT FOOD SAFETY? A CHOICE EXPERIMENT DURING SHOCK PERIOD IN INDONESIA

This study aims to assess the practices of Home-based Food Businesses (HBFB) concerning food safety standards and their preference for food sanitation and hygiene certification in Indonesia. This study employed an online choice experiment approach to discover whether home-based food business owners preferred hygienic certification. This study involved 322 participants recruited through social media as respondents. Descriptive statistics and a conditional logistic model were applied to analyse the data. The results indicate that most respondents emphasise the need for appropriate personal hygiene, handling and food cross-contamination prevention, but fall short in terms of preventing delivery contamination. In addition, respondents preferred sanitation hygiene certification for food entrepreneurs with online registration and inspection. These findings provide the first attempt at providing empirical insights into HBFB food safety practices in Indonesia during the COVID-19 pandemic and suggest a novel policy for the food delivery standard process.

How consequential is policy consequentiality? Evidence from online discrete choice experiment with ornamental plants

Stated preference surveys often employ policy consequentiality scripts to examine respondents’ concern for the policy in question and their belief in the impact of their responses on the provision of the respective good. In this study, we used an online choice experiment to investigate how perceptions of policy consequentiality influence individual preferences regarding ornamental plants cultivated with or without neonicotinoid insecticides. The role of policy consequentiality was examined between the control and treatment group and by levels of ex-post perceived consequentiality groups. Our findings indicate limited support for the notion that ex-ante consequentiality treatment mitigates hypothetical bias and choices to opt out. However, participants exhibiting higher levels of ex-post consequentiality perceptions displayed a reduced likelihood of opting out compared to those with lower levels. Furthermore, we found a sharp distinction in plant choice outcomes and elicited willingness-to-pay (WTP) between those who believed their responses were consequential and those who did not, in line with the predictions of the knife-edge effects. In contrast, participants attributing some degree of consequentiality to the survey results exhibited comparable behavior. These results suggested that the effects of policy consequentiality on consumer choices and WTP can be mixed in choice experiments involving private goods.

The power of climate labels the search for an optimal label design

AbstractThe importance of finding new, innovative ways of reducing greenhouse gas emissions has received increased attention. Climate labels are a means for this, where the life cycle emissions of a product are often given in combination with an icon. This article surveys the phenomenon of climate labels while varying their design to prompt more sustainable food consumption. Recipe boxes were selected as an example emphasizing the increasing popularity of shopping for groceries online. An online choice experiment was conducted where Danish respondents selected recipe boxes in two different scenarios: (a) the ‘all‐or‐nothing’ (binary) approach with a binary label on low‐emitting choices only and (b) the three‐tier rank‐order approach, where all meals are assigned a graphical rating. By assigning recipe boxes scores ranking from 0 to 2 based on the level of climate pollution, a measurement of the total score from a choice of recipe boxes made it possible to compare the effect of the two different approaches for climate labelling. Statistical tests indicated a significant difference between the two types of climate labels and their persuasive effect on consumer choice. They revealed that the three‐tier rank‐order approach results in more sustainable consumption than the binary approach. In demographics, younger individuals and females proved to be the most conscious in their choices.

Is the Veil of Ignorance more than a Thought Experiment? An Empirical Application to Grocery Shopper Preferences during the COVID-19 Pandemic

During the COVID-19 pandemic, grocery shoppers face a moral dilemma: to go inside the store or to use online alternatives, such as curbside pickup or home delivery to limit physical interaction. The veil of ignorance, a hypothetical state of mind, is an experimental tool used to nudge people toward the social welfare option during a decision-making process. We empirically test the effect of the veil of ignorance on grocery shopper preferences by implementing an online choice experiment with 613 U.S. consumers. Subjects who are veiled by ignorance about the state of the COVID-19 pandemic are not willing to pay significantly more for curbside pickup or home delivery than (unveiled) subjects in the control group. We also find heterogeneous effects by vaccination status. Consistent with limited evidence in the prior literature, the veil of ignorance is seemingly unable to induce moral choice behavior in real-world scenarios.

Consumers' preferences and willingness to pay for coffee sustainability labels

AbstractConsumers are displaying an increasing awareness for the social and environmental impact of coffee production, and this is also reflected in their willingness to pay for sustainably produced coffee. For example, the Direct Trade label, which highlights a direct relationship between roasters and farmers, has gained popularity to strengthen the industry's efforts to make coffee production more sustainable. This leads to the question of whether consumers prefer coffee carrying this label. Hence, this research analyzes consumer preferences and willingness to pay for coffee labels representing sustainability efforts, such as the Direct Trade label. We informed participants about the efforts reflected by each sustainability label and utilized a hypothetical online choice experiment to determine US consumers' preferences and willingness to pay for coffee sustainability labels. The highest willingness to pay was found for coffee carrying both the Fair Trade and Organic labels, and the Direct Trade and Organic labels. The key findings of this study demonstrate that consumers are willing to pay more for sustainability labels that communicate efforts on solving social issues, followed by labels that highlight environmental issues. [EconLit Citation: C9].

Covid‐19‐tested food labels

AbstractWhile the transmission of virus SARS‐CoV‐2 via food is rare, some Chinese food retailers are considering a Covid‐19‐tested food label. However, how consumers may support such a label is unknown. We quantify Chinese consumers’ willingness to pay (WTP) for food carrying a Covid‐19‐tested label using an online choice experiment. We find that the WTPs for such a label are always positive for all food products considered. The amount of WTP depends on the entities authenticating the labels, country of origin of the food, and consumers’ socio‐demographic status. Contrary to expectation, the knowledge on Covid‐19 does not affect consumer preferences for the Covid‐19‐tested food labels. Our benefit and cost analysis suggests a possible large benefit of creating and administering a Covid‐19‐tested food label. This study provides insights for policymakers, global food manufacturers, and retailers to create marketing strategies to alleviate consumer food safety concerns associated with Covid‐19.

Clinicians' preferences for managing aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage using endothelin receptor antagonists.

The endothelin receptor antagonist (ERA) clazosentan is being investigated for the medical prevention of cerebral vasospasm and associated complications, such as delayed cerebral ischemia (DCI), after aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage (aSAH). This study quantified how clinicians weigh the benefits and risks of ERAs for DCI prevention to better understand their treatment needs and expectations. An online choice experiment was conducted to elicit preferences of neurologists, intensivists, and neurosurgeons treating aSAH in the US and UK for the use of ERAs. The design of the choice experiment was informed by a feasibility assessment (N = 100), one-on-one interviews with clinicians (N = 10), a qualitative pilot (N = 13), and a quantitative pilot (N = 50). Selected treatment attributes included in the choice experiment were: one benefit (likelihood of DCI); and three risks (lung complications, hypotension, and anemia). In the choice experiment, clinicians repeatedly chose best and worst treatment options based on a scenario of a patient being treated in the ICU after aneurism repair. A correlated mixed logit model determined the relative attribute importance (RAI) and associated highest density interval (HDI) as well as acceptable benefit-risk trade-offs. The final choice experiment was completed by 350 clinicians (116 neurologists, 129 intensivists/intensive care clinicians, and 105 neurosurgeons; mean age, 47.4 years). Reducing the likelihood of DCI (RAI = 56.5% [HDI, 53.6-59.5%]) had the largest impact on clinicians' treatment choices, followed by avoiding the risks of lung complications (RAI = 29.6% [HDI, 27.1-32.3%]), hypotension (RAI = 9.2% [HDI, 7.5-10.8%]), and anemia (RAI = 4.7% [HDI, 3.7-5.8%]). Clinicians expected the likelihood of DCI to decrease by ≥8.1% for a 20% increase in the risk of lung complications, ≥2.4% for a 20% increase in the risk of hypotension, and ≥1.2% for a 20% increase in the risk of anemia. Clinicians were willing to accept certain increased risks of adverse events for a reduced risk of DCI after aSAH. The likelihood of DCI occurring after aSAH can therefore be considered a clinically relevant endpoint in aSAH treatment development. Thus, evaluations of ERAs might focus on whether improvements (i.e., reductions) in the likelihood of DCI justify the risks of adverse events.

Patient Preferences for Treatment of Bacillus Calmette-Guérin–unresponsive Non–muscle-invasive Bladder Cancer: A Cross-country Choice Experiment

BackgroundPatients with non–muscle-invasive bladder cancer (NMIBC) that is unresponsive to bacillus Calmette-Guérin (BCG) immunotherapy face a difficult choice. Immediate radical cystectomy (RC) is effective but might represent overtreatment. Continuing bladder preservation with medical therapy is an alternative, but it risks progression to muscle-invasive bladder cancer (MIBC) and a reduction in survival. ObjectiveTo understand the trade-offs patients are willing to make in selecting treatments for BCG-unresponsive NMIBC. Design, setting, and participantsAdults with NMIBC from the UK, France, Germany, and Canada who reported current receipt of BCG, disease unresponsive to BCG, or receipt of RC in the previous 12 mo after failure of BCG were recruited to participate in an online choice experiment. Patients were asked to make repeated choices between two hypothetical medical treatments and the option to undergo immediate RC. The medical treatments required trade-offs between the time to RC, the mode and frequency of administration, the risk of experiencing serious side effects, and the risk of disease progression. Outcome measurements and statistical analysisError component logit models were used to calculate relative attribute importance (RAI) scores as the maximum percentage contribution to a preference and acceptable benefit-risk trade-offs. Results and limitationsMost of the 107 participants (average age 63 yr) never selected RC (89%) as their preferred option in the choice experiment. Preferences were most affected by time to RC (RAI 55%), followed by risk of progressing to MIBC (RAI 25%), medication administration (RAI 12%), and the risk of serious side effects (RAI 8%). To increase the time to RC from 1 yr to 6 yr, patients accepted a 43.8% increase in the risk of progression and a 66.1% increase in the risk of serious side effects. ConclusionsPatients with BCG-treated NMIBC valued bladder-sparing treatments and were willing to make substantial benefit-risk trade-offs to delay RC. Patient summaryAdults with bladder cancer not invading the bladder muscle completed an online experiment in which they chose between hypothetical medications and bladder removal. The results show that patients would be willing to accept different risks associated with medications to delay bladder removal. Patients considered disease progression the most important risk of medicinal treatment.

Preferences for Sustainable Residential Lawns in Florida: The Case of Irrigation and Fertilization Requirements

The American landscape is well defined by the presence of turfgrass. To maintain the lush, green carpet, irrigation, fertilizer, and other necessary inputs are required. When these inputs are excessively applied, which is not uncommon, they are harmful to the natural environment. To mitigate potential adverse impacts, local and state governments are interested in policies that incentivize homeowners to maintain their lawns sustainably. But are there homeowners who are environmentally conscious and are willing to minimize their use of fertilizers or water? In this study, we evaluate the Floridian homeowners’ preferences for high- and low-level inputs of irrigation water and fertilizer using latent class logit (LCL) regression models based on data collected from an online choice experiment survey. Results indicated that there are heterogeneous preferences for the level of irrigation water and fertilizer application by Floridian homeowners, including high-input users (33% of the sample), irrigation-conscious users (27%), fertilizer-conscious users (23%), and moderate-input users (17%). The policy and marketing implications for relevant stakeholders are discussed.

Effect of executional greenwashing on market share of food products: An empirical study on green-coloured packaging

Greenwashing refers to the strategies adopted by some manufacturers to convey environmentally friendly production methods using claims, green-coloured packaging, and nature-evoking images without reflecting an actual environmental commitment. This phenomenon constitutes a threat to the development of an environmentally and economically sustainable market. Evaluating the impacts of these practices on the purchase behaviour of food consumers is crucial to provide manufacturers, retailers, and policymakers with meaningful guidance. This study aims to analyse the effect of the green-coloured packaging of two chocolate bars on consumers' choices. We implemented an online choice experiment with 737 Italian consumers following a between-subject approach. In the control treatment, we used the original packaging of both chocolate bars, whereas, in the other two treatments, we coloured the packaging of one chocolate bar green and retained the other's original colour. We estimated how the market shares changed when the packaging was greenwashed and segmented our sample according to respondents' attitudinal traits. Our findings demonstrate that greenwashing food products can potentially increase their market share compared to ordinary food, thus supporting the concerns of consumer organisations. However, the present study was inconclusive in identifying a profile of consumers who are most likely to be taken in by greenwashing. In the conclusion, we provide practical implications for policymakers, industry, and retailers for counteracting greenwashing.

Understanding patient preferences for handheld autoinjectors versus wearable large-volume injectors

ABSTRACT Objective While interest in the use of wearable large-volume injectors for subcutaneous drug delivery is increasing, it remains unclear whether and under what conditions these emerging dosing options are preferred over more frequent but shorter administration of smaller doses using handheld autoinjectors. Therefore, the objective of this study was to examine the characteristics of patients diagnosed with cancer, diabetes, inflammatory and cardiovascular diseases, and treatment attributes that determine device preferences. Methods Based on a cross-sectional online choice experiment, 191 participants expressed their preferences without being physically exposed to the devices or performing injections. Logistic hierarchical regression models were used to assess which patient characteristics, and how changes in treatment attributes, drive device preferences. Results Participant quality of life reduced the likelihood of preferring wearable large-volume injectors to handheld autoinjectors. Moreover, reducing injection frequency from biweekly to monthly to quarterly injections, and shortening injection duration from 33 to 8 min, significantly increased the likelihood of patients preferring large-volume injectors to autoinjectors (p < 0.001). Conclusion The study revealed patient quality of life as predictor of device preference and identified critical inflection points in injection duration and injection frequency, at which patient preferences shift from handheld autoinjectors to wearable large-volume injectors.

Online flight booking: digital nudging to decrease aviation-related carbon emissions

PurposeOnline flight booking websites compare airfares, convenience and other consumer relevant attributes. Environmental concerns are typically not addressed, even though aviation is the most emission-intensive mode of transportation. This article demonstrates the potential for digital nudges to facilitate more environmentally friendly decision-making on online flight booking websites.Design/methodology/approachThe authors used the digital nudging design process to implement two nudging interventions in an experimental setting on a fictitious flight booking website. The two nudging interventions are (1) an informational nudge, presented as an emission label, and (2) an understanding mapping nudge, presented as an emission converter.FindingsThis article finds that both digital nudges are useful interventions in online choice environments; however, emission labels more effectively encourage sustainable booking behavior.Originality/valueThe contributions of this article are twofold. In contribution to research, this article builds on existing research in sustainability contexts and successfully evaluates the effectiveness of anchoring and understanding mapping heuristics to influence sustainable decision-making in virtual environments. Furthermore, in contribution to practice, this article contributes knowledge to nudge design and provides hands on examples for designers or website operators on how to put nudge designs to practice in virtual choice environments. Additionally, this article contributes relevant considerations in a high-impact research field with growing importance given the global climate crisis.