Olympic Boxers Research Articles

Headgear increases protection against acute concussion symptoms in amateur Olympic boxers

Headgear increases protection against acute concussion symptoms in amateur Olympic boxers

Anaerobic Performance Profiling in Elite Amateur Boxers.

While anaerobic fitness is highly important for the performance in Olympic (amateur) boxing, the relationship between anaerobic performance metrics is poorly understood, and profiling boxers according to their anaerobic capacity is still a challenge. With the current study in elite amateur boxers, we aimed to compare the metabolic and cardiovascular responses to different maximal tests and the intercorrelations between performance indices (peak and mean power, duration of the test, punching frequency) of several all-out tests and their correlation to physiological response metrics (blood lactate and heart rate, HR). Twelve male Olympic boxers performed a battery of tests, including 30 s Wingate cycling and arm cranking, boxing bag punching, steep uphill treadmill running to exhaustion, and progressive treadmill running VO2max test. Performance indices of different anaerobic tests were not closely correlated except for the duration of uphill running with body weight scaled (relative) peak and mean power produced during Wingate cycling test and absolute mean power of both Wingate tests. The number of punches landed on a bag per 30 s was associated only with relative power achieved during Wingate cycling test. HRpeak but not peak lactate response correlated strongly across exercise tasks. Finally, no correlation between the highly developed aerobic and anaerobic capacity, suggests a complex picture of the adaptation in elite amateur boxers.

Physical Capacities and Combat Performance Characteristics of Male and Female Olympic Boxers

ABSTRACT Purpose: The study characterized the anthropometrical and cardiorespiratory profile, and the cardiorespiratory, bio-chemical and immunological responses to 3 × 3 min round (R) free-contact/combat boxing simulation, in elite Olympic Boxers (4 female and 10 male). Methods: The evaluation consisted of resting metabolic rate, anthropometric measurement, maximal graded test exercise (visit 1), free combat simulation (3 × 3 min R, 1 minute rest), and blood samples collected before, during and after the combat (visit 2). Results: Respectively, females and males had (mean±SD; or median: for non-parametric data) body fat percentage (17.2[3.5] and 4.6[0.8]%), predominantly mesomorphic somatotyping, and V ˙ O 2 MAX (50.0 ± 2.5 and 56.2 ± 5.2 ml.kg−1.min−1). The free combat simulation resulted in high cardiovascular strain [mean heart rate corresponding to R1: 92 ± 3; R2: 94 ± 2; and R3: 95 ± 2% of maximal HR] and blood chemistry indicative of acidosis (following R3: 7.21 ± 0.08 pH, bicarbonate 13.1 ± 3.6 mmol.L−1, carbon dioxide 13.9 ± 3.8 mmol.L−1, lactate 15.1 ± 3.8 mmol.L−1, and glucose 8.4 ± 1.3 mmol.L−1). Further, notable general catabolism, hematological and immune responses were evident post combat simulation (1-hour post R3: creatinine 95.2 ± 14.5 µmol.L−1, urea 6.4 ± 1.3 mmol.L−1, white blood cell accumulation 7.8 ± 2.6 × 109.L−1, hemoglobin 14.9 ± 0.8 g.dL−1 and hematocrit 43.7 ± 1.9%). Conclusions: Notable cardiovascular strain and acidosis are seen from the 3 × 3 free combat simulation whilst pronounced catabolism and immune responses are evident 1-hour post R3. This characterization is the first in male and female (who recently adopted the 3 × 3 min R format, as used by males) elite Olympic boxers and provides a characterization framework to assist practitioners and athletes in their attempts to deliver evidence-informed practice for specific conditioning session design.

Variations in Power Performance and Perceptual Responses to Training in Olympic Boxers Over a 7-Month Training Period.

To assess the variations in power performance and perceptual training responses and compare the physical performance of national boxing athletes qualified or not qualified for the Tokyo Olympic Games over a 7-month training period. Twelve amateur boxers from the Brazilian national team were tested 6 times across 7months. In the first assessment, boxers performed squat and countermovement jumps and bench press, prone bench pull, half squat, and jump squat power tests. In the following testing sessions, only countermovement jump and bench press power were assessed. In addition, the rating of perceived exertion and total quality recovery status were assessed in 106 training sessions across the study. Independent t test and repeated-measures analysis of variance were used for data analysis purposes. No significant differences (P > .05) were observed between Olympic and non-Olympic groups for any test variables (effect size [95% CI] ranging from 0.01 [-1.13 to 1.13] to 0.69 [-0.53 to 1.79]). No significant changes (P > .05) were detected throughout the study for countermovement jump height and bench press power in either group (effect size [95% CI] ranging from 0.01 [-1.13 to 1.13] to 1.03 [-0.25 to 2.14]). Overall, both groups exhibited similar variations in both rating of perceived exertion and total quality recovery over the 7-month period. Within the same national team, power-related performance was similar between Olympic and non-Olympic boxers. The maintenance of power abilities and optimization of technical and tactical skills seem to be key issues to consider during the final stages of preparation for international boxing competitions.

Organic Food Nutrition Knowledge Level of Olympic Boxers in Turkey

One of the most important features of organic foods is that they are produced by organic farming methods, which is an environmentally friendly form of agricultural production. This study aims to determine the organic food awareness level and the perception of disadvantage towards organic food of all Olympic boxers in Turkey and attitudes towards organic food. The sample of the study consists of 29 volunteer athletes, 19 men, and 10 women, Olympic boxers in Turkey. In the statistical evaluation of the data obtained from this study, the statistical software of SPSS 26.0 version; Cronbach's Alpha reliability, Kruskal-Wallis H and Mann Whitney U tests were applied. In conclusion, a significant difference was determined between the organic food awareness level and attitudes towards organic foods and the national class variable at the level of p

The Test-Retest Reliability of Bilateral and Unilateral Force Plate-Derived Parameters of the Countermovement Push-Up in Elite Boxers.

Maximal power describes the ability to immediately produce power with the maximal velocity at the point of release, impact, and/or take off-the greater an athlete's ability to produce maximal power, the greater the improvement of athletic performance. In reference to boxing performance, regular consistent production of high muscular power during punching is considered an essential prerequisite. Despite the importance of upper limb power to athletic performance, presently, there is no gold standard test for upper limb force development performance. To investigate the test-retest reliability of the force plate-derived measures of countermovement push-up in elite boxers. Test-retest design. High Performance Olympic Training Center. Eighteen elite Olympic boxers (age = 23 [3]y; height = 1.68 [0.39]m; body mass = 70.0 [17]kg). Participants performed 5 repetitions of countermovement push-up trials on FD4000 Forcedeck dual force platforms on 2 separate test occasions 7days apart. Peak force, mean force, flight time, rate of force development, impulse, and vertical stiffness of the bilateral and unilateral limbs from the force-time curve. No significant differences between the 2 trial occasions for any of the derived bilateral or unilateral performance measures. Intraclass correlation coefficients indicated moderate to high reliability for performance parameters (intraclass correlation coefficients = .68-.98) and low coefficient of variation (3%-10%) apart from vertical stiffness (coefficient of variation = 16.5%-25%). Mean force demonstrated the greatest reliability (coefficient of variation = 3%). In contrast, no significant differences (P < .001) were noted between left and right limbs (P = .005-.791), or between orthodox or southpaw boxing styles (P = .19-.95). Force platform-derived kinetic bilateral and unilateral parameters of countermovement push-up are reliable measures of upper limb power performance in elite-level boxers; results suggest unilateral differences within the bilateral condition are not the norm for an elite boxing cohort.

Variations in the Physical Performance of Olympic Boxers over a Four-Day National Qualifying Tournament.

The aim of this study was to examine changes in body mass (BM) and power-related measures in Olympic boxers during an official qualifying boxing tournament. Fourteen elite amateur boxers from the Brazilian National Team (eight men and six women) participated in this study. Athletes performed three fights in four days against the same opponent of the same weight-category. Before and immediately after every fight, BM, countermovement jump (CMJ) height, and power production in the bench-press and half-squat exercises were assessed in the same order and on the same time of the day. A two-way repeated-measures ANOVA with the Bonferroni post-hoc analysis was used to determine the variations between pre- and post-measures. The statistical significance was set as p < 0.05. The athletes were able to maintain their baseline weight and physical performance throughout the experimental period, as shown by the lack of significant changes in BM, CMJ height, and upper- and lower-limb power output. Throughout a four-day qualifying tournament, the BM and power-related performance of Olympic boxers were not affected either by match execution or by successive matches. As scoring actions are highly dependent on muscle power, it is likely that these combat athletes are able to maintain optimal levels of performance across consecutive matches.

Determining the One Repetition Maximum in the Ballistic Bench Press Exercise.

Loturco, I, McGuigan, MR, Suchomel, T, Freitas, TT, Rodríguez-Rosell, D, Pereira, LA, and Pareja-Blanco, F. Determining the one repetition maximum in the ballistic bench press exercise. J Strength Cond Res 34(12): 3321-3325, 2020-The purpose of this study was to determine the relative load (% of one repetition maximum [1RM]) at which the concentric action becomes entirely propulsive in the bench press (BP) exercise and verify whether this relative load varies between athletes with different strength levels. Twenty-eight professional athletes (Olympic boxers, professional mixed martial arts fighters, and elite rugby players) performed a progressive loading test up to their 1RM in the BP exercise (BP-1RM). Athletes were ordered according to their relative strength values and equally divided into 2 different groups: "low" (≤1.34) and "high" (≥1.38) strength levels. An independent t-test was used to compare the variables between groups. Significance level was set at p < 0.05. No significant differences were observed between the groups for the mean propulsive velocity attained at 1RM and for the maximum load that required braking action during the execution of the traditional BP exercise (effect size = 0.27 and 0.15, respectively; p > 0.05). Our results revealed that at 80% 1RM the concentric action can already be considered as 100% propulsive in the BP exercise. Importantly, this occurrence was independent of strength level. Therefore, this relative strength measure (i.e., 80% BP-1RM) may be used as a reference for the 1RM in the BP throw.

Origin and evolution of Olympic Spanish boxing in the period 1920-1968

This research presents the origins of boxing in the Olympic structures in Spain at the end of the 19th century, as well as the social, sporting and economic circumstances of Spanish boxing in the 1960s. This historical qualitative recovery was made based on the analysis of the testimonies of Spanish Olympic boxers who participated in the Mexican Games in 1968, information triangulated with numerous and diverse sources. The results show that Spanish participation in boxing in the Games, since its inclusion in the Spanish sports structures in 1920, took place four times until 1960. In this last decade its practitioners came from disadvantaged backgrounds and their evolution as boxers was very precarious in terms of material and personal resources. During this period, the national team developed with scarce resources. Fighters had to combine their sporting careers with other temporary jobs to support the family economy. We can conclude that those circumstances involved very poor preparation and international and Olympic defeats. However, boxing provided a platform to raise the social, economic and cultural status of the fighters and, considering their circumstances, becoming an Olympian was the greatest milestone in their personal lives and a national sporting landmark.

Investigating possible retinal biomarkers of head trauma in Olympic boxers using optical coherence tomography

PurposeChanges to retina have been reported after a number of neurodegenerative conditions. The purpose of this study was to investigate retinal structures in Olympic boxers exposed to frequent head blows.MethodsRetinal imaging offers potential as a non-invasive biomarker of neuropathology. Macula and retinal nerve fiber layer (RNFL) thickness was measured using optical coherence tomography (OCT) in UK Olympic boxers attending two mandatory eye screening programs, 18 months apart. Data from the two eye screenings provide longitudinal data of retinal change over time. Sedentary healthy subjects (controls) without past or present history of concussion were also screened at the time of the second boxer screening to provide comparison of cross-sectional data.ResultsSixteen Olympic boxers aged 20–33 years and 20 sedentary healthy controls, aged 24–45 years, were recruited. Significant macula thickening was observed over time (18 months) in 75% of right and 50% of left eye sectors. For RNFL, left eye quadrants thickened. For right eye RNFL quadrants, thickening and thinning of this layer were observed. Cross-sectional results showed thinner macula sectors and RNFL quadrants in Olympic boxers compared to controls.ConclusionSignificant change to macula and RNFL densities, occurring over an 18 month interval is an unexpected finding in otherwise heathy elite sportsmen. In addition, macula and RNFL were thinner than healthy sedentary controls. OCT may prove clinically useful as a candidate retinal biomarker of neuropathological change after mild traumatic brain injury and/or repeat head blows.

Tau protein (MAPT) as a possible biochemical marker of traumatic brain injury in postmortem examination

MAPT is a neuronal protein that plays an important role in axonal stabilization, neuronal development, and neuronal polarity. MAPT release into the CSF and blood has been interpreted as indicative of axonal injury as its elevated levels were observed in olympic boxers even after a mild head trauma suggesting minor CNS injuries. In our study we wanted to check the potential relevance of MAPT examination for forensic purposes. The study was carried out using cases of head injury group and cases of sudden death (cardiopulmonary failure, no injuries of the head — control group) provided by forensic pathologists at the Department of Forensic Medicine, Medical University of Warsaw. CSF and blood were collected within 24h after death using suboccipital puncture and femoral vein puncture. Serum and cerebrospinal fluid Tau protein concentrations were compared using an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (elisa). Brain specimens (frontal cortex) were collected during forensic autopsies. Sections were stained histologically (hematoxylin-eosin) and immunohistochemically with anti human Tau antibody, anti glial fibrillary acid protein (GFAP), anti human macrosialin (CD68) or anti human endothelial cells (CD34). In our study we documented that elevated levels of serum and CSF MAPT may also be considered a marker for mild traumatic brain injury and traumatic brain injury (mTBI and TBI). An increase in CSF and serum levels of MAPT in the absence of visible macroscopic traumatic CNS changes indicates that even minor head injuries may result in changes at the neuronal level that could remain undiagnosed during regular forensic autopsy and routine histopathological examination.

Olympic boxing is associated with elevated levels of the neuronal protein tau in plasma

Objectives: The aim of this study was to investigate if olympic (amateur) boxing is associated with elevation of brain injury biomarkers in peripheral blood compared to controls.Materials and methods: Thirty olympic boxers competing in at least 47 bouts were compared to 25 controls. Blood was collected from the controls at one occasion and from the boxers within 1–6 days after a bout and after a rest period of at least 14 days. Tau concentration in plasma was determined using a novel single molecule ELISA assay and S-100B, glial fibrillary acidic protein, brain-derived neurotrophic factor and amyloid β 1–42 were determined using standard immunoassays.Results: None of the boxers had been knocked-out during the bout. Plasma-tau was significantly increased in the boxers after a bout compared to controls (mean ± SD, 2.46 ± 5.10 vs. 0.79 ± 0.961 ng L−1, p = 0.038). The other brain injury markers did not differ between the groups. Plasma-tau decreased significantly in the boxers after a resting period compared to after a bout (p = 0.030).Conclusions: Olympic boxing is associated with elevation of tau in plasma. The repetitive minimal head injury in boxing may lead to axonal injuries that can be diagnosed with a blood test.

CSF-Biomarkers in Olympic Boxing: Diagnosis and Effects of Repetitive Head Trauma

BackgroundSports-related head trauma is common but still there is no established laboratory test used in the diagnostics of minimal or mild traumatic brain injuries. Further the effects of recurrent head trauma on brain injury markers are unknown. The purpose of this study was to investigate the relationship between Olympic (amateur) boxing and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) brain injury biomarkers.MethodsThe study was designed as a prospective cohort study. Thirty Olympic boxers with a minimum of 45 bouts and 25 non-boxing matched controls were included in the study. CSF samples were collected by lumbar puncture 1–6 days after a bout and after a rest period for at least 14 days. The controls were tested once. Biomarkers for acute and chronic brain injury were analysed.ResultsNFL (mean ± SD, 532±553 vs 135±51 ng/L p = 0.001), GFAP (496±238 vs 247±147 ng/L p<0.001), T-tau (58±26 vs 49±21 ng/L p<0.025) and S-100B (0.76±0.29 vs 0.60±0.23 ng/L p = 0.03) concentrations were significantly increased after boxing compared to controls. NFL (402±434 ng/L p = 0.004) and GFAP (369±113 ng/L p = 0.001) concentrations remained elevated after the rest period.ConclusionIncreased CSF levels of T-tau, NFL, GFAP, and S-100B in >80% of the boxers demonstrate that both the acute and the cumulative effect of head trauma in Olympic boxing may induce CSF biomarker changes that suggest minor central nervous injuries. The lack of normalization of NFL and GFAP after the rest period in a subgroup of boxers may indicate ongoing degeneration. The recurrent head trauma in boxing may be associated with increased risk of chronic traumatic brain injury.

Concussion in Professional Football: Comparison with Boxing Head Impacts—Part 10

This study addresses impact biomechanics from boxing punches causing translational and rotational head acceleration. Olympic boxers threw four different punches at an instrumented Hybrid III dummy and responses were compared with laboratory-reconstructed NFL concussions. Eleven Olympic boxers weighing 51 to 130 kg (112-285 lb) delivered 78 blows to the head of the Hybrid III dummy, including hooks, uppercuts and straight punches to the forehead and jaw. Instrumentation included translational and rotational head acceleration and neck loads in the dummy. Biaxial acceleration was measured in the boxer's hand to determine punch force. High-speed video recorded each blow. Hybrid III head responses and finite element (FE) brain modeling were compared to similarly determined responses from reconstructed NFL concussions. The hook produced the highest change in hand velocity (11.0 +/- 3.4 m/s) and greatest punch force (4405 +/- 2318 N) with average neck load of 855 +/- 537 N. It caused head translational and rotational accelerations of 71.2 +/- 32.2 g and 9306 +/- 4485 r/s. These levels are consistent with those causing concussion in NFL impacts. However, the head injury criterion (HIC) for boxing punches was lower than for NFL concussions because of shorter duration acceleration. Boxers deliver punches with proportionately more rotational than translational acceleration than in football concussion. Boxing punches have a 65 mm effective radius from the head cg, which is almost double the 34 mm in football. A smaller radius in football prevents the helmets from sliding off each other in a tackle. Olympic boxers deliver punches with high impact velocity but lower HIC and translational acceleration than in football impacts because of a lower effective punch mass. They cause proportionately more rotational acceleration than in football. Modeling shows that the greatest strain is in the midbrain late in the exposure, after the primary impact acceleration in boxing and football.

Biomechanics of the head for Olympic boxer punches to the face

Objective: The biomechanics of the head for punches to the jaw and the risk of head injury from translational and rotational acceleration were studied. Methods: Seven Olympic boxers from five...

Body Composition of US Junior Olympic Boxers

Nielsen, D H; Oppliger, R A; Bleeker, L L; Kruthoff, B A; Sand, S K; Cassady, S L; Wadsworth, C T Author Information