Oligomer-induced Cell Death Research Articles

Ca2+ is a key factor in α-synuclein-induced neurotoxicity.

ABSTRACTAggregation of α-synuclein leads to the formation of oligomeric intermediates that can interact with membranes to form pores. However, it is unknown how this leads to cell toxicity in Parkinson's disease. We investigated the species-specific effects of α-synuclein on Ca2+ signalling in primary neurons and astrocytes using live neuronal imaging and electrophysiology on artificial membranes. We demonstrate that α-synuclein induces an increase in basal intracellular Ca2+ in its unfolded monomeric state as well as in its oligomeric state. Electrophysiology of artificial membranes demonstrated that α-synuclein monomers induce irregular ionic currents, whereas α-synuclein oligomers induce rare discrete channel formation events. Despite the ability of monomeric α-synuclein to affect Ca2+ signalling, it is only the oligomeric form of α-synuclein that induces cell death. Oligomer-induced cell death was abolished by the exclusion of extracellular Ca2+, which prevented the α-synuclein-induced Ca2+ dysregulation. The findings of this study confirm that α-synuclein interacts with membranes to affect Ca2+ signalling in a structure-specific manner and the oligomeric β-sheet-rich α-synuclein species ultimately leads to Ca2+ dysregulation and Ca2+-dependent cell death.

Beta-Amyloid Oligomers Activate Apoptotic BAK Pore for Cytochrome c Release

In Alzheimer’s disease, cytochrome c-dependent apoptosis is a crucial pathway in neuronal cell death. Although beta-amyloid (Aβ) oligomers are known to be the neurotoxins responsible for neuronal cell death, the underlying mechanisms remain largely elusive. Here, we report that the oligomeric form of synthetic Aβ of 42 amino acids elicits death of HT-22 cells. But, when expression of a bcl-2 family protein BAK is suppressed by siRNA, Aβ oligomer-induced cell death was reduced. Furthermore, significant reduction of cytochrome c release was observed with mitochondria isolated from BAK siRNA-treated HT-22 cells. Our in vitro experiments demonstrate that Aβ oligomers bind to BAK on the membrane and induce apoptotic BAK pores and cytochrome c release. Thus, the results suggest that Aβ oligomers function as apoptotic ligands and hijack the intrinsic apoptotic pathway to cause unintended neuronal cell death.

Quantitative proteomic analysis reveals the neuroprotective effects of huperzine A for amyloid beta treated neuroblastoma N2a cells

Alzheimer's disease is a worldwide metabolic disease and an economically costly disease to society, so more medicines need to be developed to treat this disease. Huperzine A, a novel lycopodium alkaloid isolated from traditional Chinese medicine Huperzia serrata (Qian Ceng Ta), has been shown to possess multiple neuroprotective effects for Alzheimer's disease, but the precise pharmacological mechanism of huperzine A is unclear and needs to be further investigated. In this study, proteins from untreated N2a cells (Con group), cells preincubated with huperzine A followed by Aβ (1-42) oligomers treatment (HupA group) and cells treated with Aβ (1-42) oligomers (Aβ group) with five biological replicates in each cohort, were processed in a centrifugal proteomic reactor and quantified by label-free quantitation. A total of 2860 proteins were quantified with high confidence, and 198 proteins were significantly changed (with p-value < 0.05) between HupA and Aβ cohorts. The pathway and direct protein-protein interaction network analysis showed that huperzine A protects N2a cells against Aβ oligomer-induced cell death by downregulation of cellular tumor antigen p53 (Trp53) expression.

Prevention of Amyloid-Beta Oligomer-Induced Neuronal Death by EGTA, Estradiol, and Endocytosis Inhibitor

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVE. Alzheimer's disease is a progressive neurodegenerative disease that is biochemically characterized by the accumulation of amyloid beta (Aβ) peptides in the brain. The current hypothesis suggests that Aβ oligomers rather than fibrillar aggregates are the most toxic species of Aβ though the mechanisms of their neurotoxicity are unclear. The authors have previously shown that small Aβ(1-42) oligomers at around 1 µM concentration caused rapid (in 24 h) neuronal death in cerebellar granule cell (CGC) cultures. In this study, we aimed to investigate whether protracted (up to 7 days) incubation of CGC cultures with lower submicromolar concentration of various aggregates of Aβ(1-42) had an effect on viability of neurons. In order to get some insight into the mechanism of Aβ-induced cell death, we also sought to determine whether extracellular Ca(2+) and process of endocytosis contributed to Aβ oligomer-induced neurotoxicity and whether pharmacological interventions into these processes would prevent Aβ oligomer-induced cell death. MATERIAL AND METHODS. Primary cultures of CGC were treated with various aggregate forms of Aβ(1-42). Cell viability was assessed by fluorescent microscopy using propidium iodide and Hoechst 33342 staining. RESULTS. Exposure of neurons to 500 nM Aβ(1-42) oligomers for 72-168 h caused extensive neuronal necrosis. Lower concentrations (100-250 nM) were not toxic to cells during 7 days of incubation. Aβ(1-42) monomers and fibrils had no effect on neuronal viability even after 7 days of incubation. Treatment of neurons with EGTA, steroid hormone 17β-estradiol, and methyl-β-cyclodextrin significantly reduced Aβ(1-42) oligomers-induced neuronal death. CONCLUSIONS. The results show that submicromolar concentrations of Aβ(1-42) oligomers were highly toxic to neurons during protracted incubation inducing neuronal necrosis that can be prevented by chelating extracellular Ca(2+) with EGTA, inhibiting endocytosis with methyl-β-cyclodextrin, or by estradiol, which may protect against mitochondrial permeability transition pore opening.

Calcium-activated Calpain-2 Is a Mediator of Beta Cell Dysfunction and Apoptosis in Type 2 Diabetes

The islet in type 2 diabetes (T2DM) and the brain in neurodegenerative diseases share progressive cell dysfunction, increased apoptosis, and accumulation of locally expressed amyloidogenic proteins (islet amyloid polypeptide (IAPP) in T2DM). Excessive activation of the Ca(2+)-sensitive protease calpain-2 has been implicated as a mediator of oligomer-induced cell death and dysfunction in neurodegenerative diseases. To establish if human IAPP toxicity is mediated by a comparable mechanism, we overexpressed human IAPP in rat insulinoma cells and freshly isolated human islets. Pancreas was also obtained at autopsy from humans with T2DM and nondiabetic controls. We report that overexpression of human IAPP leads to the formation of toxic oligomers and increases beta cell apoptosis mediated by increased cytosolic Ca(2+) and hyperactivation of calpain-2. Cleavage of alpha-spectrin, a marker of calpain hyperactivation, is increased in beta cells in T2DM. We conclude that overactivation of Ca(2+)-calpain pathways contributes to beta cell dysfunction and apoptosis in T2DM.

Neurotoxic effect of oligomeric and fibrillar species of amyloid-beta peptide 1-42: Involvement of endoplasmic reticulum calcium release in oligomer-induced cell death

The nature of the toxic form of amyloid-beta peptide (Aβ) involved in early Alzheimer's disease (AD) pathology and whether it is the fibrillar or the oligomeric peptide that is the most deleterious to neurons remain controversial. This work aimed to compare the neurotoxicity of different amyloid-beta peptide 1-42 (Aβ1-42) assemblies, using fresh and aged samples enriched in oligomeric and fibrillar species, respectively, and also isolated oligomers and fibrils. The results obtained with fresh and aged Aβ1-42 preparations suggested that oligomeric species are more toxic to cortical neurons in culture than fibrillar forms, which was confirmed by using isolated oligomers and fibrils. In order to further elucidate the mechanisms involved in soluble Aβ toxicity, the involvement of endoplasmic reticulum (ER) calcium (Ca 2+) release in oligomer-induced apoptosis was evaluated. We observed that oligomeric Aβ1-42 depletes ER Ca 2+ levels leading to intracellular Ca 2+ dyshomeostasis involving phospholipase C activation. Moreover, in the presence of dantrolene, an inhibitor of ER Ca 2+ release through ryanodine receptors, the oligomer-induced apoptosis was prevented demonstrating the involvement of ER Ca 2+ release.

ERK1/2 Activation Mediates Aβ Oligomer-induced Neurotoxicity via Caspase-3 Activation and Tau Cleavage in Rat Organotypic Hippocampal Slice Cultures

In this study, we investigated the molecular basis for the altered signal transduction associated with soluble amyloid beta-protein (Abeta) oligomer-mediated neurotoxicity in the hippocampus, which is primarily linked to cognitive dysfunction in Alzheimer disease (AD). As measured by media lactate dehydrogenase levels, and staining with propidium iodide, acute exposure to low micromolar concentrations of the Abeta1-42 oligomer significantly induced cell death. This was accompanied by activation of the ERK1/2 signal transduction pathway in rat organotypic hippocampal slices. Notably, this resulted in caspase-3 activation by a process that led to proteolytic cleavage of Tau, which was recently confirmed to occur in AD brains. Tau cleavage likely occurred in the absence of overt synaptic loss, as suggested by the preserved levels of synaptophysin, a presynaptic marker. Moreover, among the pharmacological agents tested to inhibit several kinase cascades, only the ERK inhibitor significantly attenuated Abeta1-42 oligomer-induced toxicity concomitant with the reduction of activation of ERK1/2 and caspase-3 to a lesser extent. Importantly, the caspase-3 inhibitor also decreased Abeta oligomer-induced cell death, with no appreciable effect on the ERK signaling pathway, although such treatment was effective in reducing caspase-3 activation and Tau cleavage. Therefore, these results suggest that local targeting of the ERK1/2 signaling pathway to reduce Tau cleavage, as occurs with the inhibition of caspase-3 activation, may modulate the neurotoxic effects of soluble Abeta oligomer in the hippocampus and provide the rationale for symptomatic treatment of AD.

Soluble oligomers of amyloid-β peptide induce neuronal apoptosis by activating a cPLA2-dependent sphingomyelinase-ceramide pathway

Recent data have revealed that soluble oligomeric amyloid-beta peptide (Abeta) may be the proximate effectors of neuronal injuries and death in Alzheimer's disease (AD) by unknown mechanisms. Consistently, we recently demonstrated the critical role of a redox-sensitive cytosolic calcium-dependent phospholipase A2 (cPLA2)-arachidonic acid (AA) pathway in Abeta oligomer-induced cell death. According to the involvement of oxidative stress and polyunsaturated fatty acids like AA in the regulation of sphingomyelinase (SMase) activity, the present study underlines the role of SMases in soluble Abeta-induced apoptosis. Soluble Abeta oligomers induced the activation of both neutral and acidic SMases, as demonstrated by the direct measurement of their enzymatic activities, by the inhibitory effects of both specific neutral and acidic SMase inhibitors, and by gene knockdown using antisense oligonucleotides. Furthermore, soluble Abeta-mediated activation of SMases and subsequent cell death were found to be inhibited by antioxidant molecules and a cPLA2-specific inhibitor or antisense oligonucleotide. We also demonstrate that sphingosine-1-phosphate is a potent neuroprotective factor against soluble Abeta oligomer-induced cell death and apoptosis by inhibiting soluble Abeta-induced activation of acidic sphingomyelinase. These results suggest that Abeta oligomers induce neuronal death by activating neutral and acidic SMases in a redox-sensitive cPLA2-AA pathway.