Palm Oil Research Articles

Development of Elite Mother Palms from the Best-Performing Slow-Vertical-Growth Oil Palm (Elaeis guineensis Jacq.) Genotypes

Harvesting is a serious issue in oil palm plantations after 15–20 years owing to the increased height of the trees (>9 m). The slow vertical growth of the oil palm dura genotypes is desired for increasing the D × P progenies’ productivity and economic life span upto ten years. A reduced height increment has a long-term impact on harvesting costs. The current study assessed 308 genotypes generated from African germplasm. Over a three year period, the biometric properties of eleven D × D crosses were evaluated in order to quantify genetic parameters and phenotypic correlations, and principal component analysis was performed for genetic attributes of the better-performing dwarf progenies in terms of yield. The evaluated genotypes have a highly significant influence (p < 0.01) on the majority of characteristics. The progenies yielded between 165 and 208 kg of fresh fruit bunches (FFBs) per palm every year. The height increment (HI) varied between 17% and 19%, with an overall average of 18%. Genotypes G8, G300, and G221 had the lowest yearly height increments, measuring 28.98, 29.19, and 30.87 cm, respectively. The outcome of the present study shows that they are slow-height-increment genotypes with a high FFB yield (>25 T/Ha). The creation of dura parents with a slow height increment in combination with a high bunch weight helps for prolonging the productive life of the palm to more than 35 years, adding value to obtain distinct oil palm varieties. Overall, this targeted breeding effort towards developing dwarf oil palm hybrids reflects a strategic approach to addressing specific challenges in oil palm cultivation, ultimately helping to promote the oil palm sector globally.

Estimation of the digestible energy value of fat obtained from black soldier fly larvae (Hermetia illucens) for growing pigs

ABSTRACT An experiment was conducted to determine the digestible energy (DE) of insect fat (IF) from black soldier fly larvae (BSLF) for growing pigs. Saturated fatty acids (SFA) were the dominant group of fatty acids in the IF, with lauric acid (C12:0) and palmitic acid (C16:0) comprising the greatest concentrations in this group. Linoleic acids (C18:2) and oleic acids (C18:1) were the main unsaturated fatty acids. The IF contained 37.63 MJ/kg gross energy and 2.55 g/kg nitrogen. During the experiment, a DE bioassay was performed wherein growing pigs were fed one of the two experimental diets (either a maize–wheat–barley–soy basal diet or a diet containing 50 g/kg IF plus 950 g/kg of the basal diet). The DE of the IF was calculated based on the differences between the DE values of basal and test diet (substitution method). The DE of the IF was determined to be 36.86 MJ/kg. The IF contains a DE level comparable to vegetable oils, including soybean, rapeseed, corn and palm oils. The results showed that the examined fat from BSLF is a good source of available energy and can be incorporated in pig diets as an alternative energy source.

A new green rigid polyurethane foam based on modified palm oil: Preliminary study of their potential for marine buoy applications

AbstractThis study demonstrates a new green rigid polyurethane (PU) based on modified palm oil (MPO) for marine buoy applications. The bio‐polyol based on palm oil was synthesized using hydrogen peroxide and formic acid. The foam formation was by kinetic foaming reaction. The MPO‐based PU foams made with increased water content had closed cells that grew larger with water content to provide a low‐density foam. The resistance to flammability of PU foam was improved by adding triphenyl phosphate (TPP). The PU foam with increased TPP content had enlarged cells, increased water absorption and decreased compressive strength. In addition, carbon black (CB)‐containing foam had uniform, large foam cells, comparatively high density, higher compressive strength, and low water absorption. Moreover, a high CB content gave shorter extinguishing time for PU foam. The PU foams were investigated for buoyancy and compared with a commercial PU foam buoy. The commercial buoy had lower density, providing better‐floating performance than PU foam. Interestingly, CB_8 had an elevated density, but low water absorption rate, similar to the commercial buoy PU foam. The investigations showed that the PU foam from MPO is eco‐friendly, and the buoyancy performance of that foam is improved on adding TPP or CB.

Morphological, molecular and 3D synchrotron X-ray tomographic characterizations of Helicascus satunensis sp. nov., a novel mangrove fungus

A new species of Helicascus satunensis sp. nov. was collected on mature dead fruits of the Nypa palm in Satun Province, southern Thailand. Its morphological characteristics are similar to those of the genus Helicascus. Recently, a genus Helicascus with three species from marine habitats worldwide was studied. The morphology of this fungus was investigated and combined with multigene sequence analyzes of small subunit (SSU), large subunit (LSU), internal transcribed spacer (ITS) ribosomal DNA, translation elongation factor 1-alpha (TEF-1α) and RNA polymerase II (RPB2) genes. Morphologically, H. satunensis sp. nov. is characterized by semi-immersed, lenticular ascomata, multilocules, a bitunicate ascus and smooth, obovoid, dark brown ascospores that are one-septate and unequally two-celled. In addition, 3D visualization using synchrotron X-ray tomography was performed to investigate the interaction between fruiting body and substrata. Molecular phylogeny with multigene revealed that H. satunensis sp. nov. belongs to the family Morosphaeriaceae, order Pleosporales, class Dothideomycetes. Furthermore, H. satunensis sp. nov. forms a well-supported clade with Helicascus species described from marine habitats. Based on the unique morphological and molecular evidence, we propose this fungus, H. satunensis sp. nov., as a new species for Helicascus.

Determination of the Optimum Moisture Content for the Whole Kernel Recovery During the Cracking Process of Oil Palm Nuts

This study aimed to investigate the effect of moisture content on palm nut cracking and kernel production using a locally fabricated palm nut cracker. Palm nuts of mixed varieties (Dura, Tenera, and Pisifera) were manually cleaned and dried at different moisture content levels ranging from 8.53% to 26.82%. The palm nut cracker is designed with four major units: the in-feed unit, cracking unit, discharge unit and the driving unit. The cracking efficiency was determined by calculating the ratio of completely cracked nuts to the total nuts fed into the hopper. Results show that the whole kernel recovery varies considerably with moisture content and cracking speed. At the lowest moisture content of 8.58%, the whole kernel recovery is generally low across all the cracking speeds. As the moisture content increases, there is a significant improvement in whole kernel recovery at all the cracking speeds. The highest whole kernel recovery was obtained at intermediate moisture contents of around 14% to 18%, and the cracking speeds of 1000 rpm to 1400 rpm. The ANOVA table shows that both the cracking speed and moisture content have a significant effect on whole kernel recovery. Optimizing these parameters could lead to higher whole kernel recovery. However, it is important to note that other factors such as the cultivar of the nut and the equipment used may also affect the whole kernel recovery.

Projections of oil palm area in Malaysia and Indonesia to assess the relationship between plant growth and water consumption

Projections of oil palm area in Malaysia and Indonesia to assess the relationship between plant growth and water consumption

Characterization of Palm Kernel Shell Ash Nanoparticles as Coating Material for High Temperature Applications

The kernel shell of oil palm (Elaesis guineensis) was milled, calcinated and synthesized into nanoparticles (np) with a view to analyzing and ascertaining its high temperature strength. The synthesized particles were characterized to reveal their elemental composition and temperature of maximal decomposition/destruction, with the solgel method employed in the nanoparticle synthesis. The morphology of the Palm Kernel Shell Ash nanoparticles (PKSAnp) viewed from Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM) revealed that the nanoparticles were solid in nature but vary in sizes with some spherical particles visible, and an average particle size found to be 39.17nm. The Electron Dispersion Spectroscope (EDS) result shows that only elements such as C, O, Si, Al, Ca, and K are present in the PKSAnp, with silicon (Si) found to be dominant. Oxides of Silicon and Aluminum (SiO2 and Al2O3) were identified as the key chemical compounds in PKSAnp from X-Ray Fluorescence (XRF) investigation whereas K2O, CaO and Na2O were among the other oxides present in traces. The Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) curve shows a lower proportion of breakdown and a residual weight stability at temperatures above 1000oC, coinciding with the silica content in PKSAnp. This is comparable and consistent with known high temperature coating materials in previous literature.

Global mapping of oil palm planting year from 1990 to 2021

Abstract. Oil palm is a controversial crop, primarily because it is associated with negative environmental impacts such as tropical deforestation. Mapping the crop and its characteristics, such as age, is crucial for informing public and policy discussions regarding these impacts. Oil palm has received substantial mapping efforts, but accurate and up-to-date oil palm maps of both extent and age are essential for monitoring impacts and informing concomitant debate. Here, we present a 10 m resolution global map of industrial and smallholder oil palm, developed using Sentinel-1 data for the years 2016–2021 and a deep learning model based on convolutional neural networks. In addition, we used Landsat-5, Landsat-7, and Landsat-8 to estimate the planting year from 1990 to 2021 at a 30 m spatial resolution. The planting year indicates the year of establishment of the current (as of 2021) oil palm plantation by means of either newly planted or replanted oil palm in an existing oil palm plantation. We validated the oil palm extent layer using 18 812 randomly distributed reference points. The accuracy of the planting-year layer was assessed using field data collected from 5831 industrial parcels and 1012 smallholder plantations distributed throughout the global oil palm growing area. We found oil palm plantations covering a total mapped area of 23.98 Mha, and our area estimates are 16.82 ± 0.19 Mha of industrial oil palm and 7.37 ± 0.25 Mha of smallholder oil palm worldwide. The producer's and user's accuracy are 91.0 ± 2.5 % and 91.8 ± 1.2 % for industrial plantations and 71.4 ± 0.7 % and 72.4 ± 1.8 % for smallholders; these values represent an improvement compared to a previous global oil palm dataset, particularly in terms of omission of oil palm. The overall mean error between the estimated planting year and the field data was −0.24 years, and the root-mean-square error was 2.65 years, but the agreement was lower for smallholders. Mapping the extent and planting year of smallholder plantations remains challenging, particularly for wild and sparsely planted oil palm, and future mapping efforts should focus on these specific types of plantations. The average oil palm plantation age was 14.1 years, and the area of oil palm over 20 years old was 6.28 Mha. Given that oil palm plantations are typically replanted after 25 years, our findings indicate that this area will require replanting within the coming decade, starting from 2021. Our dataset provides valuable input for optimal land use planning to meet the growing global demand for vegetable oils. The global oil palm extent layer for the year 2021 and the planting-year layer from 1990 to 2021 can be found at https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.13379129 (Descals, 2024a).

Modifikasi Media Tanam Tanah Terinfeksi Ganoderma pada Pembibitan Kelapa Sawit di Pre Nursery

Nursery planting media in smallholder oil palm plantations that are attacked by stem rot disease caused by Ganoderma sp do not receive special attention and it is not uncommon for farmers to use land around their oil palm plantations that is attacked by Ganoderma. This research aims to modify planting media infected with Ganoderma spp with Trichoderma spp input in the planting media for oil palm (Elaeis guineensis Jacq.) nurseries in the Pre-Nursery. The research was conducted in the Greenhouse of the Indonesian Palm Oil Technology Institute in March 2024. Planting media material from the Ganoderma-infested People's palm oil plantations was taken from Kwala Pesilam village, Padang Tualang sub-district, Langkat district, North Sumatra Province. The design used in the research was a non-factorial Randomized Design with 5 (five) treatment levels, namely T01 (positive control) using soil infected with Ganoderma spp, T02 (negative control) using sterile soil, T1 = 5 grams of Trichoderma, T2 = 10 grams of Tricodherma and T3 = 15 grams of Trichoderma. The research results the application of Trichoderma 10 g/seed doses gave good results on average growth of oil palm seedlings and diseasesin seedlings are dominates by anthacnose

Pengaruh Campuraan Bakteri Pelarut Fosfat dan Bakteri Penambat Nitrogen terhadap Pertumbuhan Tanaman Jagung pada Lahan Kelapa Sawit (Elaeis guineensis Jacq.) Menghasilkan

Intercropped farming utilizez used open spaces as an alternative to making empty land more productive. In certain periods, oil palm plantations have open spaces that can be used for planting intercropped plants. The problem is, in general, that oil palm plantations are planted on marginal land, such as inceptisol that is weak in phosphate, so if they are planted with palm oil, it is necessary to provide fertilizer with the main macro element content for palms to grow optimally, such as phosphorus (P) and nitrogen (N). Efforts can be made to meet the P and N requirements by applying combinations of microorganisms such as phosphate solubilizing bacteria (PSB) and nitrogen-fixing bacteria (NFB). The study aims to find out the effect of various dosages of PSB and NFB combinations on the growth and yield of corn crops, as well as the effect of corn crops on the growth and physiology of palm oil crops. The experiment was conducted at the Ciparanje Experimental Farm, Faculty of Agriculture, Padjadjaran University, January to April 2024. The study used a randomized block design (RBD) with six treatments repeated four times. The treatments included the application of a combination of Pseudomonas sp. and Azotobacter sp., which included: 10 kg/ha of PSB and NFB per plant, 20 kg/ha of PSB and NFB per plant, 30 kg/ha of PSB and NFB per plant, 40 kg/ha of PSB and NFB per plant, and 50 kg/ha of PSB and NFB per plant. Experimental results showed that the PSB and NFB mixture increased crop height 5.28%, stem diameter 3.19%, cob length 9.2%, cob diameter 9.8%, dried weight by 100 seeds 14.5%, and dried weight by corn plant 33.46%. The 40 kg/ha and 50 kg/ha dose of PSB and NFB per plant is the most efficient dose for the growth and of palm oil crops producing 2.

Identification of Agricultural Socioeconomic Factor and Its Relationship with Exports of Palm and Palm Kernel Oils in Indonesia

The research aim was to study the influence of area size consisting of Government Estate (Government Estate), Private Estate (PBS), Smallholder (PR), price and exchange rate on production, and the influence of production, price and Exchange rate on palm oil exports which consists of Crude Palm Oil (CPO) and Palm Kernel Oil (PKO) using panel data for 2000-2022. Whether viewed from CPO or PKO, the results of the analysis show that the Government State has a real negative influence on production where the elasticity of the Government Estate for CPO towards production is lower than for PKO. The increase in production was significantly caused by the increase in PR for both CPO and PKO, where the elasticity of the increase in PR for CPO was higher than the increase in PKO. PBS provides a positive influence on production which is significant for PKO but not significant for CPO, while prices and exchange rates do not have an influence on CPO production, nor on PKO production. CPO and PKO exports are significantly influenced by prices, where CPO's price elasticity is higher than that of PKO. Furthermore, production and exchange rates have no influence on exports of either CPO or PKO, while the increase in CPO exports is determined significantly by PR, where the elasticity of CPO is higher than PKO.

The genetics of fruit skin separation in date palm

The physical appearance of date palm (Phoenix dactylifera) fruit (dates) is important for its market value. Many date-producing countries experience significant financial losses due to the poor appearance of the fruit, skin separation or puffiness being a major reason. Previous research showed evidence linking the skin separation phenotype to environmental conditions. To investigate this further, a genome-wide association study was conducted using genome data from 199 samples collected from 14 countries. Here, we identified nine genetic loci associated with this phenotype and investigated genes in these regions that may contribute to the phenotype overall. Multiple genes in the associated regions have functional responses to growth regulators and are involved in cell wall development and modification. Analysis of gene expression data shows many are expressed during fruit development. We show that there are both environmental and genetic contributions to the fruit skin separation phenotype. Our results indicate that different date cultivars exhibit varying degrees of skin separation despite genetic similarities or differences. However, genetically different cultivars show extreme differences compared to the phenotype variation between genetically similar cultivars. We demonstrate that beyond environmental factors, genetics is a strong contributor to the most extreme skin separation in some cultivars. Identifying the genetic factors may help better understand the biology and pathways that lead to the environmental effects on skin separation and improve commercial date production. In conclusion, our key finding is that both environmental and genetic factors contribute to skin separation variation, and improvements in environmental factors alone cannot overcome the extreme level of variation observed in some cultivars.

Harnessing Palm Oil Mill Effluent for the Green Synthesis of Silver Nanoparticles: Optimization via Response Surface Methodology and Assessment of Antibacterial Activity

Harnessing Palm Oil Mill Effluent for the Green Synthesis of Silver Nanoparticles: Optimization via Response Surface Methodology and Assessment of Antibacterial Activity

Comparison of Hollow Fiber and Flat Sheet Membranes for Removing TDS and Turbidity of Palm Oil Mill Effluent Wastewater

The most significant pollutant produced from agricultural industry in Kalimantan, Indonesia is Palm Oil Mill Effluent (POME). Due to the high levels of suspended particles and organic matter, POME has become a brownish color with high turbidity, color, chemical oxygen demand, and oil and grease content. To recycle the POME wastewater as clean water, these pollutants must be eliminated. In this study, we compare the effectiveness of hollow fiber (HF) and flat sheet (FS) membrane to remove total dissolved solid (TDS) and turbidity from POME with varied filtration pressure. HF and FS membrane were prepared from PVDF and nylon66 polymer, respectively. The PVDF HF membrane was modified using TiO2 and SBE (spent bleaching earth) to improve HF membrane properties to maintaining fouling. Meanwhile, FS membrane was added by pectin to increase the hydrophilic properties. Overall membrane’s morphology was determined by Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) to investigate the membrane structure. Both of HF and FS membrane were operated via ultrafiltration (UF) under cross flow system. The filtration pressures were varied at 1-3 bar and followed by flux and rejection evaluation. The results show both HF and FS membranes has stability flux. In addition, TDS rejection up to 25% while turbidity is excellent high over 95% for all membranes. The fabrication HF membrane has finger like-sponge structure and FS membrane exhibits sponge asymmetric structure. Overall, all membranes perform highest water flux (FS membrane) while highest rejection conducted by HF membrane for POME wastewater treatment.

Glycerol esterification of free fatty acids catalyzed by zinc glycerolate for biodiesel production from acidified palm oil: Optimization, kinetic study, and process evaluation

AbstractBiodiesel is an important alternative renewable liquid fuel due to its eco‐friendly, non‐toxic, and lower emissions. In this work, glycerol esterification catalyzed by zinc glycerolate was employed as a pretreatment to prepare biodiesel from acidified palm oil. The effects of stirring rate, catalyst amount, glycerol to free fatty acids (FFAs) molar ratio, and reaction temperature on the conversion of FFAs and concentration of monoglycerides, diglycerides, and triglycerides were investigated and optimized. The results show that the conversion of FFAs could reach 99.16% under the optimized conditions. Moreover, the kinetics of glycerol esterification catalyzed by zinc glycerolate at 160–200°C was obtained. Additionally, a comprehensive evaluation of the new biodiesel production process was also conducted. As a result, higher biodiesel content in the crude biodiesel phase was obtained after transesterification and separation using this new process. Overall, the study contributes to the utilization of waste oils to produce renewable energy and to minimize the waste management problem.

Valorizing Waste Streams to Enhance Sustainability and Economics in Microbial Oil Production.

Driven by demand for more sustainable products, research and capital investment has been committed to developing microbially produced oils. While researchers have shown oleaginous yeasts and other microbes can produce low-carbon footprint oils by leveraging waste streams as energy sources, previous analyses have not fully explored the quantity of available waste streams and in turn economy-of-scale enabled on capital and operating expenses. This paper makes parallels to 2G ethanol facilities, enabling a data-driven understanding of large-scale production economics. Production costs are broken down for a variety of scenarios. The analysis finds that reaching price parity with large-scale commodity oils (e.g., palm oil, high-oleic cooking oils, biofuels feedstock oils, lauric acid) is not possible today and unlikely even under aggressive future assumptions about strain productivity. Instead, commercial production must be targeted at end markets where sustainability-conscious consumers are willing to pay the price premiums identified in this paper.

Carbon emission allowance, global climate risk, and agricultural futures: An extreme spillover analysis in China

The aim of this paper is to investigate the extreme spillover effects between the newly launched China's national carbon emission allowance and agricultural futures markets with the influence of global climate risk. The results show that, first, under both normal and extreme market (climate risk) conditions, the three edible oil futures, i.e., soybean oil, palm oil and rapeseed oil, are strong spillover senders to other agricultural futures. Second, under low and normal climate risk states, climate transition risk is a spillover transmitter, while under high climate risk states, climate physical risk becomes a spillover sender. In addition, the network analysis shows that climate risk is an important information receiving and disseminating node, and large changes in it can lead to increased systemic risk across the network. Finally, China's carbon emission allowance market is always a spillover receiver across different market (climate risk) conditions, and can be used as an appropriate hedging instrument for climate risk and agricultural futures. These findings have valuable implications for both policymakers and agricultural investors.

Retraction Note to: Mechanical and thermal properties of prepacked aggregate concrete incorporating palm oil fuel ash

Retraction Note to: Mechanical and thermal properties of prepacked aggregate concrete incorporating palm oil fuel ash

Effects of Modified Oil Palm Kernel Expeller Fiber Enhanced via Enzymolysis Combined with Hydroxypropylation or Crosslinking on the Properties of Heat-Induced Egg White Protein Gel

Due to its poor hydration properties, oil palm kernel expeller dietary fiber (OPKEDF) is rarely used in the food industry, especially in hydrogels, despite its advantages of high availability and low cost. To address this situation, the effects of enzymolysis combined with hydroxypropylation or crosslinking on the structure and hydration properties of OPKEDF were investigated, and the impact of these modified OPKEDFs on the properties of egg white protein gel (EWPG) was studied. Enzymolysis combined with hydroxypropylation or phosphate crosslinking improved the soluble fiber content (5.25–7.79 g/100 g), water-retention and expansion abilities of OPKEDF (p < 0.05). The addition of unmodified OPKEDF or modified OPKEDF increased the random coil content of EWPG and increased the density of its microstructure. Moreover, enzymolysis combined with hydroxypropylation or crosslinking enhanced the effect of OPKEDF on the properties of EWPG, including improvements in its water-retention ability, pH, hardness (from 97.96 to 195.00 g), chewiness (from 78.65 to 147.39 g), and gumminess (from 84.63 to 152.27) and a reduction in its transparency (p < 0.05). Additionally, OPKEDF and enzymolysis and hydroxypropylated OPKEDF increased the resilience (0.297 to 0.359), but OPKEDF treated via enzymolysis and crosslinking reduced it. Therefore, OPKEDF modified by means of enzymolysis in combination with hydroxypropylation or crosslinking improved the gel properties of EWPG. However, further work is required to determine the effects of these modifications on the nutritional profile, scalability, and economic feasibility of OPKEDF and egg white gel.

Adsorption of Lufenuron 50-EC Pesticide from Aqueous Solution Using Oil Palm Shell-Derived Activated Carbon

The use of Lufenuron 50-EC pesticide in oil palm crops affects water quality and aquatic life. This study investigated the adsorption of Lufenuron 50-EC from an aqueous solution using activated carbon derived from oil palm shells (OPSs). Activated carbon (AC) was prepared through physical and chemical activation processes in carbon dioxide environments, using potassium hydroxide (KOH) as a chemical activating agent. The resulting AC was characterized using standard techniques. The most favorable operating parameters were physical activation at 900 °C for 2 h, achieving a BET surface area of 548 m2/g. For chemical activation, at 800 °C, 1 h, and an impregnation ratio (KOH/biochar) of 2:1 (w/w), a BET surface area of 90 m2/g was obtained, which was smaller than that achieved by physical activation. The use of KOH reduced the surface area but generated a high presence of functional groups on the AC surface, which is important for adsorption processes. The AC produced achieved high Lufenuron adsorption yields, reaching a maximum of 96.93%. AC produced at 900 °C with 2 h showed the best performance. Therefore, OPS is an excellent precursor for producing AC with favorable characteristics for pollutant adsorption in aqueous solutions, especially for the insecticide Lufenuron.