Oil Spill Incidents Research Articles

Compensation for the damages arising from oil spill incidents: Legislation infrastructure and characteristics of the Chinese regime

In this paper, the current Chinese regime focusing on the compensation for the environmental damages arising from the seaborne oil spill pollution was introduced, with respect to legislation infrastructure and characteristics. By now, a two-tier compensation regime, consisting of a liability scheme and a fund scheme, has already been established in China through referring to the international conventions and other states' regimes. Although its essential parts were almost identical to those of international conventions, several significant differences exist, including the norms about liability exemption and the third party liability, the fund collection and usage, as well as the amount of the levied contribution and the Special Drawing Right ceiling. With the broadens of the environmental liabilities, the longstanding issues of environmental losses arising from oil pollution have been increasingly involved in intense debates since the international conventions and some states' legislation covered them into the claim scope. A Chinese technical guideline dealing exclusively with the environmental losses was presented in detail; moreover, the differences between this guideline with the US approach were compared with respect to the compensation goals, the calculation methodologies and the compensation pathways. In the past decades, the Chinese authority has successfully settled down some famous major oil spill incidents in courts under its domestic legislation and local regulations, but the arguments on these litigations kept heated, which prompted some eco-economical experts to resolve several issues urgently, such as the compensation scope, the compulsory claim procedures, and the assessment methods of ecological compensation. Hence, some continuous efforts should be taken to explore these solutions, which are truly helpful to satisfy the requirements of the full compensation for the oil pollution damage and the marine environment protection.

A DYNAMIC DATA-DRIVEN APPLICATION SIMULATION MODEL FOR OIL SPILL EMERGENCY DECISION IN PORT WATER AREA

In order to solve the difficulty in simulation and prediction the evolution of oil spill incidents in port water area caused by system complexity and environment variety, a simulation model based on Dynamic Data-Driven Application System (DDDAS) was developed. By assimilating real-time data, simulation model can update its initial condition and solutions, and modify its parameters. Firstly, the framework for DDDAS-based simulation model was designed. Then the method for mapping of real-time data to simulation model, the method for recovery of initial data for DDDAS, and the algorithms to simulate the behavior of oil spill were studied. Finally, numerical tests were provided to illustrate the validity of the proposed model. Results indicate that the DDDAS-based simulation method can improve the prediction accuracy of oil spill incidents.

Bohai Sea oil spill model: a numerical case study

An operational Bohai Sea oil spill serving module (BSOSSM) that can provide users with trajectory and movement information of the released oil is developed for the purpose of informing mitigation of oil spill incidents in the Bohai Sea, China. BSOSSM is one of the serving modules that had been integrated in China digital ocean prototype system, a marine information platform for managing, displaying and disseminating all the data investigated by China 908 Program. The oil spill trajectory is calculated by an oil spill model (OSM), which serves as a component in BSOSSM. The impacts of wind, current, as well as Stokes drift on oil spill trajectory are studied by sensitivity experiments conducted using OSM. Simulation results indicate that wind forcing is the most important factor in controlling the oil trajectory at the sea surface in Bohai Sea, whereas current and Stokes drift play relatively less important roles. However, because the direction of waves generally follows that of the wind, Stokes drift does lead to an increase in oil drift and spreading velocity. Case studies of the Penglai 19-3 oil spill incident (June 2011) and Xingang oil spill (April 2005) demonstrate that OSM can generally reproduce the oil spreading, and is therefore capable of supporting the emergency response of future oil spills in the Bohai Sea through BSOSSM.

대형 기름유출사고와 방제조치에 관한 연구 -1. 국내외 해양기름오염사고 건수와 유출량

해양기름오염방지를 위한 정량적 기초자료를 얻기 위하여 최근 20년간(1993년-2012년) 국내 및 세계의 해양에서 발생한 기름유출사고에 관한 통계자료를 수집하고 분석하였다. 최근 20년간 국내 연안에서 발생한 기름오염사고건수는 총계 6,608건으로 평균 약 330건/년이었고 기름유출량은 총계 57,328 kL로 평균 약 2,866 kL/년이었다. 국내에서 유조선의 대량기름유출사고로 인하여 연간유출량이 1993년에 15,388 kL, 1995년에 15,773 kL, 1997년에 3,428 kL, 2007년에 13,008 kL로 크게 증가하였다. 최근 20년간(1993년-2012년) 세계의 사고건수는, 기름유출량이 8 kL(7톤) 이상인 경우, 총계 420건으로 평균 21건/년이었고, 세계의 기름유출량은 총계 약 800,000 kL(704,000톤)로 평균 약 40,000 kL(35,200톤)/년이었다. 특히 2012년에는 800 kL(700톤)을 초과하는 기름유출사고가 발생하지 않았다. 그러나 기름유출량이 8 kL(7톤) 이상인 사고에서 유조선의 대량기름유출사고로 인하여 세계의 연간기름유출량은 1993년에 약 159,000 kL(140,000톤), 1994년에 약 147,600 kL(130,000톤), 1996년에 약 90,900 kL(80,000톤), 1997년에 약 81,800 kL(72,000톤), 2002년에 약 76,100 kL(67,000톤)로 크게 증가하였다. 국내와 세계를 비교하면, 국내적으로나 세계적으로 공히 20년간 연간사고건수와 연간기름유출량과의 상관관계는 명확하지 않았으며 사고건수와 유출량이 모두 연도별로 변동 폭이 크지만 해가 거듭될수록 감소하는 경향을 보였다. 2008년부터 세계의 사고건수와 유출량은 모두 크게 감소하였고, 특히 2012년에는 800 kL(700톤) 이상의 기름유출사고는 발생하지 않았다. In order to obtain quantitative basic data for marine oil pollution prevention, the statistics of oil spill incidents in Korea and in the world for 20 years from 1993 to 2012 were collected and analyzed with relation to the number of oil spills and the amount of oil spilt. In Korea for 20 years, total number and average annual number of oil spills were 6,608 cases and nearly 330 cases/year, respectively, and total volume and average annual volume of oils spilt were 57,328 kL and nearly 2,866 kL/year, respectively. Due to major oil spills from oil tankers, annual volumes of oils spilt in Korea were sharply increased to 15,388 kL in 1993, 15,773 kL in 1995, 3,428 kL in 1997 and 13,008 kL in 2007. In case of worldwide oil spills for 20 years, total number and average annual number of oil spills of 8 kL (or 7 tonnes) and above were 420 cases and 21 cases/year, respectively, and total amount and average annual amount of oils spilt 8 kL (or 7 tonnes) and above were about 800,000 kL (or 704,000 tonnes) and about 40,000 kL/year (or 35,200 tonnes/year), respectively. Major oil spills from oil tankers increased massively annual amounts of oils spilt worldwide to about 159,000 kL (or 140,000 tonnes) in 1993, about 147,600 kL (or 130,000 tonnes) in 1994, about 90,900 kL (80,000 tonnes) in 1996, about 81,800 kL (72,000 tonnes) in 1997 and about 76,100 kL (or 67,000 tonnes) in 2002. Obvious correlation between annual number of oil spills and annual amount of oil spilt was not found in both Korea and the world, while both annual number and annual volume tended to decrease with the lapse of year in both Korea and the world, though there were wide fluctuations from year to year in both annual number of oil spills and annual amount of oils spilt worldwide and in Korea for 20 years. From 2008 to 2012 worldwide, there were sharp decreases in both annual number and annual amount of oil spills. In particular, no oil spill of 800 kL (or 700 tonnes) and above occurred in the year of 2012.

Risk Analysis for Environmental Hazards. The case of oil spills in Crete

In this paper a review of most recent practices in the field of Risk analysis are presented. Then the available data for oil spill incidents in the area of Crete covering the period 1995-1999 are analysed and discussed in detail. Risk analysis tables are produced in order to formulate the spatial, temporal (yearly and monthly) risk of an incident, the correlation with the prevailing wind fields in both northern and southern Crete, and the possibility of an early intervention the relevant authorities located at the major port of Heraklion. Then the possible risk of an oil spill incident is discussed in relation to various sensitive social or financial activities as well as to environmentally protected areas. Finally a formula is proposed and applied in order to combine the various risks from an oil spill incident. As it was found, northern Crete and especially the marine areas of Heraklion and Chania are most prompt for an oil spill accident and its consequences. The area of Sitia follows. Southern Crete seems to be less vulnerable to such risks.

Classifying risk zones by the impacts of oil spills in the coastal waters of Thailand

Risk zones that could be subject to the impacts of oil spills were identified at a national scale across the 23 coastal provinces of Thailand based on the average percentage risk of critical variables, including frequency of oil spill incidents, number of ports, number of local boats, number of foreign boats, and presence of important resources (i.e., protection area, conservation area, marine park, mangrove, aquaculture, coral reef, seagrass, seagull, seabird, sea turtle, dugong, dolphin, whale, guitar fish, and shark). Risks at the local scale were determined based on the frequency of simulated oil slicks hitting the coast and/or important resources. Four zones with varied risk magnitudes (low, moderate, high, and very high) were mapped to guide the preparation of effective plans to minimize oil spill incidents and impacts in coastal waters. Risk maps with sufficient information could be used to improve regulations related to shipping and vessel navigation in local and regional seas.

Treatment of oil spill water by ozonation and sand filtration

Increasing volumes of crude oil being produced and transported throughout the world in recent decades have resulted in increased risks of spill and high-profile spill incidents of significant environmental and ecological impacts over extended periods of time. While immediate in situ and ex situ responses have been implemented, none are available for onsite treatment of contaminated water for immediate release of the treated water. We demonstrate here a potential treatment scheme involving ozonation and sand filtration intended for immediate treatment and discharge of the impacted water. Waters of tap, Utah Lake, and Great Salt Lake sources were spiked with crude oil of the Great Natural Butte of Utah at 2.5% and 0.025% oil (v/v) and tested for treatment. The results showed near complete removal (100%) of both Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) and oil and grease (O&G) from initially 20000 and 11000mgL−1, respectively, via flotation pretreatment, ozonation in pressure cycles, and sand filtration. At lower oil level of 0.025%, complete removal of COD and O&G from waters were achieved without floatation. The treated waters showed reduction of turbidity to <1 from 4000 NTU and high Biochemical Oxygen Demand/COD ratio of 0.3–0.5 that reflected highly biodegradable residual organics. The results showed synergistic oil removal when two well practiced methods, namely ozonation and sand filtration that either alone seems ineffective, are combined sequentially. It indicates a potential onsite treatment response for oil spill incidents where the collection and transport of a large amount of contaminated water may be avoided.

Characteristics of Ship Oil Spill Incidents in Zhejiang Coastal Area

This paper reviewed oil spill incidents in Zhejiang coastal waters and characteristics of these incidents were analysed from geographical and seasonal distributions. Both operational and accidental oil spill incidents were examined, and key factors on ship accidents were identified. It was found that traffic density may be an important contributor to the oil spill incidents as key majority of accidents happened in busy waterways of important ports, especially Ningbo-Zhoushan area. The most significant oil spill risks were associated with navigational hazards of collision and grounding. The findings could be very useful for developing oil spill risk control and pollutants recovery measures.

Study on the Adsorption Efficiency of Carbonized Rice Hull Adsorption Bag for the Removal of Oil from Sea Water

With the increasing incidence of accidental oil spills, there is now a growing worldwide concern about the urgent need to purify oil-polluted sea water and conserve the marine ecosystem. Carbonized rice hull (CRH) prepared in the open air has been studied as adsorbent for purification of oil-polluted sea water. The adsorption effects of CRH and CRH absorption bag were both investigated. The results showed that under the dosage of 20 g/L and initial oil concentration of 746, 520 and 380 μg/L, the obtained oil removal efficiencies were 59.0%，78.8% and 67.1%, respectively. The adsorption bag counterpart indicated that under the initial oil concentration of 546 μg/L, an equilibrium state was reached for all the three kinds of package bags. The obtained adsorption amounts were 21.7, 25.5, 22.8 μg/g and the corresponding removal efficiencies were 59.7%, 70.0% and 62.6%, respectively.

Offshore Oil Spill Incidents in Brazil

Brazil has performed an important role in the oil and gas industry mainly because its offshore E&amp;P activities. The volume of oil produced in offshore fields had increased 88% in the last decade. Although the offshore exploration had begun in the 70’s of the last year, only in the year 2000 was promulgated a law enforcing the companies to notify any accidental release to the environment. Besides the Brazilian Navy and the National Petroleum Agency, the Brazilian Federal Environmental Agency - IBAMA is entitled to receive these notifications. Although IBAMA receives the oil spill communications since 2001, only in 2010 the Agency began to include this information in a database. This paper discusses the offshore oil spill data received between 2010 and 2011.

Diagnosis of Oil Spills in Penglai 19-3 Using MODIS Imagery

To diagnose and analyze the Penglai 19-3 oil spill incident which occurred in Bohai Sea on 4 June, 2011, MODIS 1B images was used in this article. And histogram equalization enhancement was processed on the image after ratio operation between oil-water sensitive channel bands to emphasize the difference between film and background water’s spectral reflectance, and strengthen the oil spills boundary. And last, we use threshold determination method based on image segmentation, combined with the spectrum characteristic of crude oil, to extract oil spills information from the suspected oil films area. Putting together, we locate the oil spills and estimate the area and quantity of oil films.

Numerical Simulation of Oil Spill Behavior in the Persian Gulf

The aim of this research is to simulate oil spill behavior in the Persian Gulf due to the wind andtidal currents. This is achieved by coding an oil spill mathematical model consisting of several major submodels including hydrodynamic model, oil slick dynamic model and oil weathering model. The base of all of them is Eulerian approach and they are coupled together to simulate spill incident in the Persian Gulf. Thehydrodynamic model provided to simulate the tidal current is based on two dimensional depth averagedequations of shallow water discretized by finite volume method that is applied on rectangular structured mesh. The tidal current in the Gulf is made by imposing tidal fluctuation to the main open boundary at the Hormuz Strait. This model verification is carried out by comparison the resultant predictions of model with the available measured data and it shows a good agreement. Oil slick transport on the sea surface is simulated by an advection-diffusion model. Also, the most effective natural processes on oil fate and their effect on oil properties are estimated by an oil weathering model. Then, a test case including analytical solution is chosen to ensure the model capability on oil spill simulation. Finally, the model is implemented for a spillage event in the Persian Gulf. By explanation of the presented results, oil fate, the slick transport and other predicted data are demonstrated. The results show the model capability on modelling of an oil spill incident in marine environment.

서해 지역별 굴 Crassostrea gigas 성장 특성, 유생 출현량 및 채묘율

Due to the oil spill incident in December 2007, every facility of oyster culture was removed in western coast especially in Taean and Seosan. To restore oyster resources in Taean and Seosan, we brought oyster seeds from southern area and monitored their growth. In addition we monitored the culture environment throughout the year, and observed the number of oyster larvae and attached spats on collectors during summer. The factors of water environment were appropriate for oyster culture in both study area. The growth of shell height was larger in Uihang-ri, Taean than Jungwang-ri, Seosan. Spawning was more intensive in a short time in Jungwang-ri, Seosan than Uihang-ri, Taean. The number of oyster larvae and spats of collectors were much more in Jungwang-ri, Seosan than Uihang-ri, Taean. This study showed that transplantation of healthy oyster seeds from southern area can be a way of restoration of oyster resources in western coast. In addition, systematic approaches are necessary by building a better understanding of regional characteristics to restore and enlarge the oyster culture farms in western coast. In summary Uihang-ri, Taean will be appropriate for cultivation farms and Jungwang-ri, Seosan for seedling grounds to increase oyster culture productivity. Key word; oyster, Crassostrea gigas, growth, larvae, spat, restoration, transplantation

고해상도 해양순환모형을 이용한 씨프린스호 유류유출 사고 수치실험

This study investigates the effects of tide, wind and oceanic currents on oil spill dispersions through a series of numerical floats tracking experiments on the Sea Prince oil spill incident occurred in 1995 using a 3-dimensional high resolution ocean circulation model. For that, a total of four experimental cases (experiment with tide, wind and oceanic currents, experiment with tide and oceanic currents, experiment with wind and oceanic currents, and experiment with tide and wind) were compared. It could be seen that results from experiment involving all external forces showed better agreement with the observed pattern of oil slick movement than other cases. The oceanic currents acted to drive floats to move to the western channel of the Korea straits and wind accelerated the eastward movement of floats in the early stage of the incident. Tidal currents played significant role in the horizontal dispersion of floats.

IMPACT OF OIL EXPLORATION AND EXPLOITATION ON THE NIGER DELTA REGION: ENVIRONMENTAL PERSPECTIVE

Since the discovery of oil in Nigeria in 1956, the country has been suffering the negative environmental consequences of oil exploration and exploitation. Between 1976 and 1996 a total of 4647 incidents resulted in the spill of approximately 2,369,470 barrels of oil into the environment. In addition, between 1997 and 2001, Nigeria also recorded a total number of 2,097 oil spill incidents. In 1998, 40,000 barrels of oil from Mobil platform off the Akwa Ibom coast were split into the environment causing severe damage to the coastal environment. Several oil spill management policy and efforts are in place to reduce the menace of oil spill incidents in the country. Some of these policies and efforts were made by the Federal Government, Non governmental agencies and oil firms in the country. The use of oil trajectory and fat e-models is also incorporated in oil spill management policy in the country. The results from a hypothetical simulation with the model from a point around OPL 250 located about 150km off the Nigerian coastline shows that the simulated oil spill for wet season reached the shore around Penington River after 104hours, about 4.5 days. Also during the dry season, the results from the model indicate that the oil spill reached the shore at the entrance of Benin River after 162 hours, 6.5days. This paper examines the impact of oil exploration and exploitation which encompasses environmental degradation, social annihilation, and economic impoverishment in the Nigeria’s Niger-Delta and the emerging socio-economic multiplier effects on the people of the region. The study employed tables and as well as percentages forms of statistical analysis. Data for the study were mainly secondary sources extracted from the National Bureau of Statistics (NBS) and the United Nations Development Programmes report. The study revealed that the emerging social disorder and HIV/AIDS prevalence in the region is as a result of the social and economic multiplier effects such as unemployment and high level of poverty. The study then recommends an integrated community based approach involving commitment from all stakeholders.

Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) in Mississippi Seafood from Areas Affected by the Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill

Seafood samples from the fishing ground closure areas of Mississippi Gulf Coast that were affected by the Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill Disaster were collected and analyzed for twenty-five 2- to 6-ring PAHs, about one month after the first day of incident. A total of 278 seafood samples consisting of 86 fishes, 65 shrimps, 59 crabs, and 68 oysters were collected and analyzed weekly from May 27, 2010 until October 2010 and monthly thereafter until August 2011. Statistically higher levels of total PAHs were detected in all four types of seafood samples during early part of the sampling period compared to the later months. There was no significant concentration difference between PAHs detected in the oyster samples for the current study and the 10-year historical data from the NOAA Mussel Watch program. The PAH levels in the tested seafood samples were similar to those detected in commonly consumed processed foods purchased from local grocery stores and restaurants. Overall, the levels of PAHs in all the tested seafood samples collected within one-year period after the Oil Spill incident were far below the public health Levels of Concern (LOC) established jointly by the NOAA/FDA/Gulf Coast states under the protocol to reopen state and federal waters.

미국 멕시코만 기름유출사고에서 본 유처리제 사용의 효용성 고찰

Once oil has spilled, oil spill responders use a variety of countermeasures to reduce the adverse effects of spilled oil on the environment. Mechanical methods of containment and recovery are preferred as the first response when the use of other methods fail or are ineffective. In these cases, the application of oil dispersants shall be use only as a last resort. While effectiveness of dispersants in removing oil form the sea surface is proven, the use of dispersants is controlled in almost all countries due to the toxicity of their active agents and the dispersed oil on the marine environment. However, according to reports, after dispersant application, no significant toxicity to fish or shrimp was observed in the field-collected samples. Moreover, the results also indicate that dispersant-oil mixtures are generally no more toxic to the aquatic test species than oil alone. During the Deepwater Horizon Incident, dispersants were applied to floating oil and injected into the oil plume at depth. These decisions Here carefully considered by state and federal agencies, as well as BP, to prevent as much oil as possible from reaching sensitive shoreline habitats. Net Environmental Benefit Analysis for dispersant use assumed that dispersants appear to prevent long-term contamination resulting absence of oil in the substrate and will benefit marine wildlife by decreasing the risk of significant contamination to feathers or fur. Further study to use dispersants with scientific baseline is needed for our maritime environment which consistently threaten huge oil spill incidents occurrence.

Dioctyl sulfosuccinate analysis in near-shore Gulf of Mexico water by direct-injection liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry

Dioctyl sulfosuccinate (DOSS) was a major component of the dispersants most used in the 2010 Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill incident response. This analytical method quantifies salt water DOSS concentrations to a reporting limit of 20μg/L, which was below the United States Environmental Protection Agency's (U.S. EPA) 40μg/L DOSS Aquatic Life Benchmark. DOSS in Gulf of Mexico water samples were analyzed by direct-injection reversed-phase liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry (LC–MS/MS). Sample preparation with 50% acetonitrile (ACN) enabled quantitative transfer of DOSS and increased DOSS response 20-fold by reducing aggregation. This increased sensitivity enabled the detection of a confirmatory transition over the calibration range of 10–200μg/L. U.S. EPA Region 5 and Region 6 laboratories analyzed hundreds of near-shore surface Gulf of Mexico water samples, none contained more than the 20ppb reporting limit. The matrix spike DOSS/deuterated surrogate (DOSS-D34) correlation of determination varied with mobile phase modifier (ammonium formate R2=0.95 and formic acid R2=0.27). Using ammonium formate, DOSS-D34 accurately measured DOSS matrix effect. The near-shore sodium concentrations varied more than 10,000-fold, but were not strongly correlated with DOSS recovery. DOSS detection by LC–MS/MS enabled rapid analysis which was valuable in guiding incident response.

Industry arrangements for oil spill preparedness

In the post-Montara/Macondo world, the Australian petroleum industry has been actively represented on various working groups focused on the prevention, preparedness and response to significant oil spill incidents. Through the Australian Marine Oil Spill Centre (AMOSC) based in Geelong, Victoria, cooperation and coordination with other international associations has been occurring to ensure ‘reasonable steps’ are taken to develop preparedness and response arrangements commensurate with the risks associated with industry activities.Concurrently and here in Australia, a thorough review of the National Plan has allowed industry to work with government to develop or amend a range of initiatives aimed at ensuring that industry and government strategies are integrated for maximum efficiency in all circumstances. The scene has been set by a reviewed national risk assessment focusing on all activities of hydrocarbon movement around the Australian coastline. So what has Australian industry actually achieved post-Montara in prevention, preparedness and response to oil spills? This extended abstract shares and explains the practical outcomes of the industry initiatives of oil spills in Australia. The outcomes are planning requirements, equipment location, mutual aid arrangements, training programs and the extended services of industry oil spill response organisations in Australia and overseas.

Environmental pollution and remediation: challenges and management of oil Spillage in the Nigerian coastal areas

This paper examines the environmental pollution and remediation of oil spillage in the Nigerian Coastal areas. Oil spillage is one of the greatest environmental problem Nigeria is currently battling with especially in the Niger Delta zone. Oil communities have been at the receiving end of this environmental problem. The problems has generated a lot of concern within of the three tiers of government especially in oil producing states. The coastal area of the Niger Delta is the home to oil explorations and exploitations in Nigeria. Oil spill incidents are common along the Nigeria. The main sources of oil spill on the Niger Delta are: vandalisation of the oil pipelines by the local inhabitants; ageing of the pipelines; oil blow outs from the flow stations; cleaning of oil tankers on the high sea and disposal of used oil into the drains by the road side mechanics. By far the most serious source of oil spill is through the vandalisation of pipelines either as a result of civil disaffection with the political process or as a criminal activity.The paper also delves into the evil of oil spillage facing the Nigeria environment. The Causes, Consequences, Geographic Information System for Managing Oil Spill Incidents and Control Mechanisms were articulated to ameliorate this problem and assist oil communities.