Oil Palm Trunk Research Articles

Effects of oil palm trunk biochar as filler on physical and mechanical properties of deproteinised and epoxidised natural rubber latex foam

Effects of oil palm trunk biochar as filler on physical and mechanical properties of deproteinised and epoxidised natural rubber latex foam

Production of Low Temperature Synthetic Graphite

Synthetic graphite is a material consisting of graphitic carbon which has been obtained by graphitizing a non-graphitic carbon. The growth in demand, particularly in customizing properties for certain usage has brought about research on viable alternative, low-cost, and environmentally pleasant synthetic graphite production. Biomass wastes are amongst appealing carbon precursors which have been broadly checked out as replacement carbon for graphite production. This research aimed to synthesize synthetic graphite from oil palm trunks at low temperatures (500 °C, 400 °C and 300 °C) under controlled conditions to determine the physical properties and properties of the graphite obtained. After the heat treatment process, the obtained samples were then characterized by using XRD, SEM and RAMAN characterizations. Based on SEM and RAMAN characterization, it can be seen that graphite that undergoes a 500 °C pyrolysis process shows the best results compare to graphite that undergoes a pyrolysis process at the temperatures of 300 °C and 400 °C. The graphite flakes and the peaks obtained for 500 °C graphite are obviously present. For XRD characterization, the best samples at 500 °C were chosen to be characterized. From the results, the sample shows slight behavior imitating the commercialized graphite. Hence, from the characterizations of the samples, it can be concluded that the best synthetic graphite produced was from the oil palm trunks heated at 500 ° C.

Characteristics of liquid sugar from old oil palm trunk sap as affected by processing methods

The sap of old oil palm trunks contains appreciable sugar, but it has not been considered a potential sugar source. This study aimed to find the best method for producing oil palm liquid sugar that complies with the Indonesian National Standard (SNI) The non-factorial experiment was arranged in a Completely Randomized Block Design (CRBD) with 6 replications. The treatments were a combination of lime-rotary vacuum evaporation (P1), without lime-vacuum rotary evaporation (P2), lime-atmospheric evaporation (P3); without lime-atmospheric evaporation (P4). The parameters observed were pH, °brix, reducing sugar, color, aroma, and overall acceptance. The data were subjected to ANOVA to determine the effects of the treatments and then, continued testing using HSD at α 0,05 for means separation. The best treatment was found on liquid sugar processed using lime, and atmospheric evaporation with brix of 68.75%, pH of 5.4, moisture content of 17.74, ash content of 0.86%, reducing sugar of 44.31%, sensory score of color, aroma, and overall acceptance were f 3.42 (brownies yellow), 4.4 (like), and 4.04 (like).Keywords: lime, liquid sugar, old oil palm trunk, sensory, vacuum rotary evaporator

Lightweight cellulosic insulation panels made from oil palm trunk fibers

Biobased thermal insulation is of relevance as a sustainable substitute for current fossil-based materials. In this regard, oil palm trunk (OPT), which arises in substantial quantities as a by-product of the palm oil industry, is a suitable raw material due to its relatively high content in cellulosic fibers and low cost. The present study focuses on the inner part of OPT, which is light and low in mechanical performance and therefore lacks suitable applications other than fuel wood. OPT was grinded, chemically pre-treated to reduce the content of non-cellulosic constituents and fibrillated. With the partial aid of additives, the fiber suspensions where then mechanically foamed and dried. The light-weight panels produced by this method showed low densities of roughly 50 – 100 kg m−3 and thermal conductivity of 40 – 45 mW m−1 K−1. With these values, OPT foam panels are well within reach of current non-bio-based insulation materials and perform equally well or even better than other bio-based thermal insulation materials.

Sound Classification for Non-Destructive Diagnosis of Basal Stem Rot Disease based on Stem Density in Oil Palm Trunks

Oil palm trees play a crucial role in the economies of Southeast Asian countries, providing palm oil that is essential for various products and consumption. However, the Basal Stem Rot (BSR) disease caused by the white-rot fungus Ganoderma spp. poses a significant challenge, leading to wilting and death of the trees. This study proposes a practical and accessible approach for the routine detection of Basal Stem Rot (BSR) disease in oil palm trees caused by Ganoderma spp. A prototype system for initial disease diagnosis is developed by utilizing the local wisdom technique of tapping and assessing knocking sounds based on stem density in oil palm trunks. Three algorithms, Convolutional Neural Network (CNN), Support Vector Machine Classifier (SVC), and Multi-Layer Perceptron (MLP) models are compared for accuracy in two sound recognition experiments. The first experiment involves a three-class classification model (healthy, boundary, and infected areas), while the second excludes the boundary area. Results demonstrate that the CNN model outperforms SVC and MLP, achieving the highest accuracy of 90.73% in the two-class scenario and 84.97% in the three-class scenario, along with superior precision, recall, and F1 score. The CNN model proves to be the most effective in accurately classifying the data in both scenarios compared to the other models. This prototype system offers promising implications for the early detection and proactive management of Ganoderma spp. disease, contributing to the preservation and sustainability of oil palm plantations in Southeast Asia.

Biovalorizing felled oil palm trunk as a sole feedstock for lactic acid production through efficient simultaneous saccharification and fermentation

This study aimed to develop practical biorefinery process for bio-valorizing felled oil palm trunk (OPT) as a sole feedstock for lactic acid (LA) production. OPT was separated into oil palm sap (OPS), vascular bundle (OPT-VB), and parenchyma (OPT-PA) fractions. OPS containing high amounts of sugars (38.69 g/L) and nitrogen (0.63 g/L), could be used directly for LA production by Lactobacillus acidophilus and also as base medium for simultaneous saccharification and fermentation (SSF) of OTP-VB and OPT-PA. The repeated SSF efficiently utilized cellulosic OPT-VB and produced LA up to 50–71 g/L during five cycles. Due to high water-absorbing and swelling properties of OPT-PA, it could not be initially added at high loadings. It was then intermittently added through fed-batch SSF, which effectively produced LA of 72.85 ± 1.61 g/L. These strategies have shown the efficient biorefinery process for biovalorization of OPT and may also be applicable to other similar agricultural wastes.

Physical and mechanical properties enhancement of beaten oil palm trunk pulp and paper by optimizing starch addition: Towards sustainable packaging solutions

Paper is a commonly utilized material in various aspects of daily life. However, the pulp and paper industry face environmental challenges related to pollution and deforestation. The utilization of non-wood fibres, such as agricultural waste of oil palm (Elaeis guineensis Jacq.) from oil palm trunk (OPT), may offer sustainable alternatives to wood-based pulp. However, the mechanical properties of OPT paper in this study need improvement to compete with wood-based paper. Incorporating starch as an additive can enhance the mechanical and physical properties of OPT paper. This study aimed to develop and characterize the unbleached OPT paper prepared via kraft and soda pulping methods and beating treatment. The mechanical properties are enhanced by adding starch at 5,10,15, and 20 %. Findings exhibited that the addition of starch increased the tensile strength of OPT papers but decreased tear resistance. Hence, the papers have a high potential to be applied as non-woody pulp source-sustainable alternative raw materials for packaging.

The Effects of Autohydrolysis Pretreatment on the Properties of OPT Pulps for the Production of Dissolving Pulp

This preliminary study investigated an environmentally friendly method for fabricating cellulose-rich dissolving pulp from Oil Palm (<i>Elaeis guineensis</i>) Trunk (VBOPT) fibre. This method encompassed an autohydrolysis pretreatment followed by soda pulping procedures. The impact of autohydrolysis pretreatment on the separation of lignocellulosic components was scrutinised to facilitate the production of chemical cellulose. Autohydrolysis was performed on VBOPT fibre for 60 min at temperatures ranging from 140°C to 160°C, maintaining a solid-to-liquid ratio of 1:8. The yield of the prehydrolysed OPT varied between 73.5% and 91.5%. The chemical composition of the prehydrolysed VBOPT fibre comprised 70.6–80.0% holocellulose, 63.7–87.1% α-cellulose, 7.4–10.9% ß-cellulose, 5.5–25.4% γ-cellulose, and 21.5–26.6% lignin. The prehydrolysed OPT was subsequently subjected to alkaline pulping under fixed conditions: a temperature of 160°C, a treatment time of 60 min, a chemical charge of 25%, and a solid-to-liquid ratio of 1:6. The resultant pulp exhibited properties such as a screening yield of 41.5–46.4%, a kappa number of 4.5–9.6, and α, β, and γ cellulose content of 89.4– 98.1%, 1.5–5.3%, and 0.4–6.9%, respectively. Based on the chemical composition of the OPT biomass before and after pretreatment, as well as post-alkaline cooking, the autohydrolysis pretreatment was determined to significantly influence the resultant pulp. A more comprehensive understanding of the interdependence of autohydrolysis and pulping processes can be achieved by executing an optimisation study focusing on key parameters of autohydrolysis and pulping, including temperature, treatment duration, and chemical charge.

Production of ethanol from oil palm trunk by simultaneous saccharification and fermentation process at bench scale

Abstract A largenumber of oil palm trees are replanted every year. Considering the extent of replanting and OPT’s high starch and sugar content, it was determined to be a potential raw material for bioethanol production. This study conducted ethanol production by simultaneous saccharification and fermentation of starch-rich powder extracted from oil palm trunks. Fermentation was conducted on a 100 L bench scale to evaluate the feasibility and further development of the process before the process is implemented at a larger scale. The preparation of the starch-rich flour involves shredding, drying, and screening of the trunks until the starch-rich powder passes through an 80-mesh sieve. Furthermore, starch was liquefied and partially saccharified. Subsequent saccharification was performed simultaneously with fermentation. The initial total sugar content was adjusted to 15 % w/v and starch was enzymatically hydrolyzed using commercial α-amylase (Liquozyme) and glucoamylase (Novozyme) produced by NOVO. Fermentation was performed using Saccharomyces cerevisiae Hakken No. 1. Since the starch-rich flour contains useful nutrients and growth factors for microbes, the fermentation medium only required the addition of a nitrogen source (urea 1 g/L). The ethanol content after fermentation was approximately 8.7 % v/v with a fermentation ratio of 88.8 %. These results were obtained at a fermentation time of 60 h. One OPT yields 80 kg of starch-rich powder, equivalent to 33 liters of bioethanol.

Efficient Biovalorization of Oil Palm Trunk Waste as a Low-Cost Nutrient Source for Bioethanol Production

This study aimed to efficiently utilize felled oil palm trunk (OPT) for bioethanol and lactic acid production. OPT was separated into two fractions: oil palm sap (OPS) and OPT fiber. OPS contained substantial amounts of sugars (38–40 g/L) and nitrogen (0.60–0.70 g/L), which can serve as a base medium for bioethanol production. As bioethanol production requires high sugar concentrations, OPS was concentrated, supplemented with OPT fiber, and used for bioethanol production through simultaneous saccharification and fermentation (SSF) by Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Repeated-batch SSF for five cycles efficiently utilized OPT fiber and achieved an average ethanol production of 35–42 g/L in each cycle. To increase the accessibility of the enzyme, OPT fiber was acid-pretreated prior to the SSF process. The combined use of acid-pretreated OPT slurry and concentrated OPS provided the maximum ethanol production of 49.63 ± 1.05 g/L. The fermented broth after ethanol recovery, containing mainly xylose, was used to produce lactic acid at a concentration of 18.85 ± 0.55 g/L. These strategies can greatly contribute to the zero-waste biorefinery of OPT and may also be applicable for the efficient biovalorization of other similar agricultural wastes.

Sustainable Hydrogen Production from Oil Palm Trunk Biomass in Indonesia: A Techno-Economic Study

Hydrogen has been recognized as a global sustainable alternative sustainable energy source. The government of Indonesia has been working on a novel idea to launch the hydrogen industry. Accordingly, research and development of ecologically acceptable hydrogen manufacturing methods are essential. Supercritical water gasification (SCWG) is one of the recent techniques to create hydrogen. This research investigated the techno-economics of hydrogen production in Indonesia using SCWG. Oil palm trunks (OPT), a plentiful byproduct of palm oil plants, are the primary raw materials employed in this industry. This study extracted data from several research publications on SCWG-related hydrogen generation and performed computational analysis using several economic parameter equations. According to the analysis, with a potential OPT source of around 34 million tons, the plant could manufacture 304,166.67 tons of OPT per year, generating 365,000 tons of hydrogen annually. The production cost was projected to be USD 1,179,409,295, with a fixed capital investment of USD 1,178,853,030.47. The expected annual income was USD 1,825,000,000. This assessment yielded an ROI of 60% and an NPV of USD 1,888,889,382.70. The IRR value was 26.96%, with a PoT of 2.49 years. The sensitivity analysis revealed that the price of hydrogen significantly affected the values of IRR and PoT. Therefore, the government must determine the exact price of hydrogen to ensure its sustainability.

Efficient production of polyhydroxybutyrate using lignocellulosic biomass derived from oil palm trunks by the inhibitor-tolerant strain Burkholderia ambifaria E5-3.

Lignocellulosic biomass is a valuable, renewable substrate for the synthesis of polyhydroxybutyrate (PHB), an ecofriendly biopolymer. In this study, bacterial strain E5-3 was isolated from soil in Japan; it was identified as Burkholderia ambifaria strain E5-3 by 16S rRNA gene sequencing. The strain showed optimal growth at 37°C with an initial pH of 9. It demonstrated diverse metabolic ability, processing a broad range of carbon substrates, including xylose, glucose, sucrose, glycerol, cellobiose, and, notably, palm oil. Palm oil induced the highest cellular growth, with a PHB content of 65% wt. The strain exhibited inherent tolerance to potential fermentation inhibitors derived from lignocellulosic hydrolysate, withstanding 3g/L 5-hydroxymethylfurfural and 1.25g/L acetic acid. Employing a fed-batch fermentation strategy with a combination of glucose, xylose, and cellobiose resulted in PHB production 2.7-times that in traditional batch fermentation. The use of oil palm trunk hydrolysate, without inhibitor pretreatment, in a fed-batch fermentation setup led to significant cell growth with a PHB content of 45% wt, equivalent to 10g/L. The physicochemical attributes of xylose-derived PHB produced by strain E5-3 included a molecular weight of 722kDa, a number-average molecular weight of 191kDa, and a polydispersity index of 3.78. The amorphous structure of this PHB displayed a glass transition temperature of 4.59°C, while its crystalline counterpart had a melting point of 171.03°C. This research highlights the potential of lignocellulosic feedstocks, especially oil palm trunk hydrolysate, for PHB production through fed-batch fermentation by B. ambifaria strain E5-3, which has high inhibitor tolerance.

Maximizing economic potential and sustainability: Replanting waste management in West Kalimantan's oil palm plantations

Oil palm plantations in West Kalimantan cover the largest land area and yield considerable output. While palm oil is the primary product, these plantations also generate by-products, such as production waste, posing environmental risks. Consequently, replanting initiatives are undertaken to mitigate ecological impacts. However, independent replanting efforts still generate significant waste, including oil palm trunks and other biomass with substantial economic potential. Hence, it is crucial to estimate the potential waste from replanting activities and assess the economic benefits achievable through waste processing. Estimations reveal that annually, processing replanting waste into wood pellets could yield an economic value of IDR 125,376,725,586.59 for independent plantations, while maintaining carbon neutrality.

An interesting phenomenon in oil palm: anatomical, morphophysiological, and biochemical observations from aerial roots on the trunk

Abstract Roots are plant organs that function for nutrient and water absorption and support plant upright. Oil palm has distinctive roots due to the growth of primer roots that grow in two directions, namely vertical and horizontal. The growth of oil palm roots is highly dependent on the source of energy accumulated at the base of the stem. The availability of assimilate will determine the rate of root formation. The results of observations in the field, there is a phenomenon of root growth on oil palm stems. In general, there are four root growth phenomena, namely aerial roots which are the roots of plants affected by Ganoderma disease, roots that grow in the middle of the stem, the base of the stem, and at the end of the stem of the oil palm plant. This phenomenon has not been studied comprehensively. Therefore, this study was conducted with the aim of identifying the anatomical, morphophysiological, and plant biochemical observations of normal and aerial roots in oil palm trunks. The results showed differences in anatomical, morphology, and biochemical between roots growing underground and aerial roots. There are anatomical differences between the actual and aerial roots, namely the number of meta xylem is 19 pieces with a larger size in the underground roots, while the aerial roots are only 15 with a smaller size. The similarities between the two roots are included in the scalariform group. Aerial roots have the same types of roots as normal, namely primary, secondary, and tertiary roots. Based on the biochemical analysis, Palm5 has 3 times higher than reducing sugar percentage on Palm7.

Mechanical Properties of Oil Palm Trunk Lumber Using Parallel Strand Lumber (PSL)

This research is to study and investigates how the mechanical strength of oil palm trunk can be improved for parallel strand lumber (PSL) in the timber industry. Various methods are implemented by the wood industry for this purpose. The research uses an Instron Universal Testing Machine to perform mechanical testing on the oil palm trunk after undergoing PSL. Samples used for tensile testing adhere to the size guidelines outlined by the American Society of Testing Materials (ASTM). The results of the experiment indicate that the 1-inch strand has the highest mechanical strength compared to the 0.5 inch and 0.3-inch strand, as it has a higher fibre content that enables it to withstand applied loads or forces. However, the average sample of the 0.3-inch strand also exhibits similar mechanical strength as the 1-inch strand, due to the small size of the strand which allows for better absorption of the glue and stronger bonding with the surface.

Transforming oil palm trunk waste into high-performance lightweight materials

Addressing the growing demand for efficient sustainable materials, this study presents the development of a high-performance lightweight material utilizing oil palm trunk—a waste product from oil palm (Elaeis guineensis) cultivation. The proposed novel process involves polymer impregnation of sawn oil palm trunk under ambient conditions for 24-h soaking intervals, resulting in loadings of polymethyl methacrylate ranging from 0 wt% to 220 wt%. Subsequent polymerization at temperatures (90 and 103°C) commonly employed in the wood drying industry enhances the water resistance of the material, making it comparable to that of commercially available timber. Remarkably, the treated oil palm lumber attained a maximum density of approximately 450 kg/m3, making it a lightweight material. Furthermore, the impregnation process significantly improves the decay resistance of this product under natural weathering conditions. The treated oil palm lumber also displayed an increase of up to five times in the bending and compressive strength. Interestingly, a linear correlation between these enhanced properties and the density of this material was observed. This suggests the possibility of systematically producing the high-performance oil palm lumber through a simple and industry-accessible process.

Pyrolysis of oil palm trunk biomass using a fixed bed reactor to produce raw material for bio-carbon black

The abundance of palm oil plantation waste in Indonesia can be utilized as a raw material for making carbon black, which currently relies on fossil fuel-based raw materials. Out of the five types of palm oil biomass waste, including empty fruit bunches (EFB), palm kernel shells (PKS), palm mesocarp fibers (PMF), oil palm fronds (OPF), and oil palm trunks (OPT), one will be chosen as the raw material for carbon black production. Palm oil biomass waste typically has a relatively high ash content. To reduce the ash content, the biomass must first undergo pyrolysis to transform it into pyrolysis oil. The higher the carbon content and the lower the oxygen content, the more the pyrolysis oil meets the criteria for replacing crude oil. Among the criteria mentioned, the lowest ash content is found in palm kernel shells (1.4%). The highest carbon content is in palm trunks (55.8%), while the lowest oxygen content is also in palm kernel shells (34.5%). Palm kernel shells are the best palm oil biomass that can be used as a raw material for carbon black. However, because palm kernel shells are commonly used as boiler fuel, the second choice is palm trunks due to their high carbon content. Pyrolysis experiments were conducted using palm trunk biomass to produce bio-oil, which would be further processed into carbon black. The palm trunks were divided into three parts: outer trunk, middle trunk, and core trunk. The biomass size was also varied, with sizes of 20 mesh and 40 mesh. The pyrolysis process used a fixed bed reactor with a heating rate of 3°C/minute, reaching a pyrolysis temperature of 600°C, and maintaining that temperature for 1.5 hours. The highest yield of bio-oil obtained was from the outer trunk with a biomass size of 40 mesh (36.8%). Similarly, for a size of 20 mesh, the highest yield was also from the outer trunk (35.7%).

Pemanfaatan ampas batang kelapa sawit tua bebas nira sebagai bahan baku biopelet [Utilization of sap free old palm dregs as raw material for biopellets

Palm oil plants, after reaching the end of their productive life, need to be rejuvenated with proper handling to prevent old palm trunks, which have been cut down, from being infested by beetles and the growth of Ganoderma sp. fungus, which can damage productive palm oil plants in the vicinity. The old oil palm trunks contain sap and have been utilized. The residue of the oil palm trunk after sap extraction contains carbon compounds that can be used as raw material for bio-pellets, representing an added value potential. In this study, the composition of sap-free palm trunk dregs as raw material for bio pellets and the manufacture of bio pellets using sap-free palm dregs with a combination of particle size treatment and pressing pressure of T1M1 (0.4882 kg/cm2; 10 mesh); T1M2 (0.4882 kg/cm2; 20 mesh); T1M3 (0.4882 kg/cm2; 40 mesh); T2M1 (0.9764 kg/cm2; 10 mesh); T2M2 (0.9764 kg/cm2; 20 mesh); T2M3 (0.9764 kg/cm2; 40 mesh); T3M1 (1.4647 kg/cm2; 10 mesh); T3M2 (1.4647 kg/cm2; 20 mesh); and T3M3 (1.4647 kg/cm2; 40 mesh) using a hydraulic shop press to produce bio-pellets with a length of 2.5 cm and a diameter of 1.2 cm. The research used a descriptive method by presenting data as diagrams and tables. The results showed that the nira-free palm dregs used as raw material for the best bio-pellets in the T2M1 treatment (0.9764 kg/cm2; 10 mesh) contained 25.7% hemicellulose, 47.6% cellulose, and 7.2% lignin. The pellets produced contained 6.50% moisture content, 5.01% ash content, and 4416.93 cal/g heating value.

Nanofibrils from oil palm trunk: effect of delignification and fibrillation technique

Oil palm trunk (OPT) is an inexpensive, abundantly available by-product of palm oil production which is typically not put to material use. Due to its comparably high cellulose content, OPT represents a suitable raw material for the preparation of cellulose nanofibrils (CNFs). Aiming for full utilization of the raw material and minimized energy demand, non-delignified and partially delignified (alkali-pretreated) OPT was subjected to mechanical fibrillation in the present study. As compared to CNFs from fully delignified OPT, the lignin-rich microfibrils obtained by this approach generally showed higher average fibril diameters, lower thermal stability as well as lower viscosity, and higher sedimentation rate in suspension. However, the combination of alkali-pretreatment and fibrillation by disc-grinding and subsequent high-pressure homogenization resulted in fibrils with properties similar to those of CNFs from fully delignified OPT. As proven by IR-spectroscopy, thermogravimetry and chemical composition analysis, alkali-treated OPT fibrils still contained substantial amounts of residual lignin which could, for instance, act as a natural coupling agent or binder in composite applications. Moreover, the facile delignification process applied herein requires far less chemicals and energy than conventional pulping and is thus beneficial from both the economic and ecological perspective.

Physicochemical characterisation and kinetic modelling of wet torrefied oil palm trunk in pyrolysis condition

AbstractOver 218 million tonnes of oil palm trunks (OPT) waste is produced annually by Malaysian oil palm industry, which can be converted to biofuels via wet torrefaction. This study assessed the fuel characteristics of wet torrefied OPT (WT‐OPT) using proximate analysis, higher heating value (HHV) analysis, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), and scanning electron microscopy–energy dispersive X–ray spectroscopy (SEM–EDX). Increasing wet torrefaction temperature and residence time increased the fixed carbon content and HHV of OPT. SEM–EDX revealed the presence of microspheres of 5‐hydroxymethylfurfural (5‐HMF) in OPT wet torrefied at 180 and 220°C for 72 h, an intermediate compound that can contribute to the HHV enhancement in WT‐OPT. FTIR and EDX results revealed that higher temperature and residence time concentrate the carbon content of OPT. Wet torrefaction at 180°C for 72 h decreased the activation energy and pre‐exponential factor of OPT from 301.88 to 171.70 kJ mol−1 and from 4.43 × 1028 to 3.25 × 1012 s−1, respectively, during pyrolysis. The estimated thermodynamic parameters, particularly the change in entropy which generally decreased by more than 140 J mol−1 K−1, indicated increase in stability of certain WT‐OPT.