Oil Palm In Colombia Research Articles

Temporal Dynamics of Airborne Concentrations of Ganoderma Basidiospores and Their Relationship with Environmental Conditions in Oil Palm (Elaeis guineensis).

Basal Stem Rot (BSR), caused by Ganoderma spp., is one of the most important emerging diseases of oil palm in Colombia and is so far restricted to only two producing areas in the country. However, despite the controls established to prevent its spread to new areas, containment has not been possible. This study aimed to understand BSR's propagation mechanisms and related environmental conditions by measuring Ganoderma basidiospores' concentrations at various heights using four 7-day Burkard volumetric samplers in a heavily affected plantation. Meteorological data, including solar radiation, temperature, humidity, precipitation, and wind speed, were also recorded. Analysis revealed higher basidiospore concentrations below 4 m, peaking at 02:00 h, with increased levels towards the study's end. Spore concentrations were not directly influenced by temperature, humidity, or precipitation, but showed higher releases during drier periods. A significant correlation was found between wind speed and spore concentration, particularly below 1.5 m/s, though higher speeds might aid long-distance pathogen spread. This study highlights the complexity of BSR propagation and the need for continued monitoring and research to manage its impact on Colombia's oil palm industry.

Foliar Lesions Induced by Pestalotiopsis arengae in Oil Palm (O × G) in the Colombian Southwest Palm Zone.

In Colombia, plantings with the oil palm hybrid between Elaeis oleifera × Elaeis guineensis, known as O × G hybrid, have increased due to its tolerance to bud rot. Despite this, different degrees of foliar necrosis, chlorosis, and leaf blight have been reported in some cultivars; therefore, this work aimed to diagnose this problem. We visited plantation plots with palms exhibiting the mentioned symptoms and collected 21 samples of affected tissues in different disease states. The affected tissues were examined and seeded in a culture medium. Pathogenicity tests were performed and the isolates were characterized by culture and morphological and molecular features. Curvularia, Colletotrichum, Phoma, and 25 Pestalotiopsis-like fungi were isolated from the foliar lesions. In the pathogenicity tests, the symptoms observed in the field were reproduced with MFTU01-1, MFTU12, and MFTU21 isolates, which were identified at the species level through a sequence analysis of three genes (ITS, TUB2, and TEF1-α) as Pestalotiopsis arengae with an identical level of 99% based on the results of BLAST and phylogenetic tree analyses. The remaining 22 Pestalotiopsis-like non-pathogenic isolates were identified as species of Neopestalotiopsis and Pseudopestalotiopsis. The direct association of P. arengae with the disease was confirmed via molecular detection in affected tissues in 15 of 21 samples collected for this evaluation. This is the first report of P. arengae as the causal agent of foliar lesions in O × G hybrid oil palm in Colombia.

Biology, Population Fluctuation, and Foliar Consumption Rate of Durrantia arcanella Busk, 1912 (Lepidoptera: Depressariidae), a Defoliator of Oil Palm in the Colombian Caribbean.

Durrantia arcanella is a recurring pest insect of oil palm in Colombia. Because the biology and ecology of D. arcanella are unknown, it was proposed to determine the life cycle and foliar consumption under laboratory conditions. Furthermore, through sequential sampling for two and a half years, its population fluctuation and natural enemies were determined in Agustín Codazzi and El Copey (Cesar, Colombia). Also, temperature, precipitation, and relative humidity were registered. The life cycle of D. arcanella lasted 48.0 ± 10.1 days, the egg 8.0 ± 0.7 days, larva 24.2 ± 6.2 days, pre-pupa 1.5 ± 0.5 days, pupa 7.1 ± 0.9 days, and adult 7.2 ± 2.0 days. The larvae consumed 8.2 ± 5.3 cm2 of leaflets. Correlations were found between the population fluctuation in D. arcanella and the temperature in El Copey (ρ = -0.45; p < 0.0043), relative humidity in Codazzi (ρ = 0.33; p < 0.034), and with the natural control in both locations ((ρ = 0, 61; p < 0.000044) and (ρ = 0.42; p < 0.006)). These results suggest monitoring the pest populations in the second semester of the year and show the importance of promoting native natural enemies.

Genetic gains for obtaining improved progenies of oil palm in Colombia

The success of breeding programs depends on the available genetic variability and the adequate selection of parents to produce seeds that generate added value to the developed cultivars that solve limiting problems of the crops. The determination of genetic gain is a powerful tool to advance the selection of outstanding progenitors that are subsequently used to obtain improved cultivars for traits of interest. With the main objective of calculating the genetic gain in different cycles, this research evaluated the yield, vegetative parameters, and oil production components in two oil palm populations identified as C0-Monterrey and C1-Vizcaina. The analysis was carried out using the analysis of variance. Genetic variation and heritability coefficients for all the evaluated traits were also calculated to obtain the components of phenotypic, genotypic, and environmental variation. Genetic gains (Δg) were more representative in the yield traits of fresh fruit bunches, with 19%, for the number of bunches per plant, with a Δg of 18.7%, and for the oil to bunch with a Δg of 6%. Low environmental influences were observed in the phenotypic variation for the different traits evaluated. Finally, high heritability values were observed for genetic traits such as height increase, with 93%, and average bunch weight, with 85%. The development of new progenies using elite dura-type female parents derived from these evaluated populations, with excellent yields of fresh fruit, bunch components, and slow growth, will be the future of oil palm cultivation. In the meantime, progeny trials must focus on improving the ability to select outstanding parents for the best DxP progenies.

Reply to Paterson, R.R.M. Comment on "Castillo et al. Ganoderma zonatum Is the Causal Agent of Basal Stem Rot in Oil Palm in Colombia. J. Fungi 2022, 8, 230".

Reader Q: There was no morphological information provided for the isolated specimens, and so it is not known if they are even Ganoderma [...].

The oil palm cadastre in Colombia

This article describes the process of constructing a model of the geographic information management for the cultivation of oil palm in Colombia. Due to the need to collect, store, update, and analyze data from planted areas in the country, it was necessary to rely on the soft systems model to propose an information system structure that would respond to the needs of accounting for planted areas and to be able to integrate such information with other strategic data for the oil palm sector. This research developed a database model on which the geographic data related to the Colombian planted area of palm oil has been stored for over ten years. The geographic model has allowed creating new information at various territorial scales, integrated with phytosanitary data important for regional crop management. The integration of a web-based platform has positioned the oil palm cadastre as a consultation service for users working in various roles in the oil palm industry, as a reliable geographical bank of information, available to other oil palm project agribusinesses.

Land and State Capacity During Civil Wars: How Land-Based Coalitions Undermine Property Taxation in Colombia

Revenue, especially that from agricultural crops, has been considered fundamental for the development of state capacity. While existing research has mostly focused on dynamics of violence, we know less about the impact of commodities shocks on a key dimension of state power: property taxation. In this article, I explore how and why land-based coalitions—alliances between landowners and paramilitaries around the appropriation of land—undermine taxation during civil conflict. Focusing on the expansion of oil palm in Colombia and using a difference-in-differences design, I leverage the international price of oil palm and municipal variation in crop suitability. I find that, in municipalities with higher paramilitary violence and land concentration, the palm shock was associated with lower taxation, outdated cadastral information, and lower land values. This article underscores the deleterious consequences of land inequality for the state’s extractive capacity even in moments of agricultural abundance.

Ganoderma zonatum Is the Causal Agent of Basal Stem Rot in Oil Palm in Colombia.

Basal stem rot (BSR), caused by Ganoderma spp., is one of the most important emerging oil palm diseases in Colombia, and is restricted to two oil palm production areas in the country. To identify the causal agent of the disease, basidiocarp of oil palms affected by BSR were used to prepare isolates, and their pathogenicity was then assessed in pre-nursery plants. Four-month-old oil palm seedlings were inoculated with rubber wood (Hevea brasiliensis) blocks colonized with dikaryotic mycelia of Ganoderma. The incidence, severity, and symptoms of the pathogen were assessed. A multiregional analysis (ITS, rpb2, and tef1-α) was carried out to identify the isolates; all isolates were determined to be Ganoderma zonatum. Phylogenetic analyses with the three regions yielded concordant phylogenetic information and supported the distinction of the isolates with high bootstrap support. Seven isolates (CPBsZN-01-29, CPBsZN-02-30, CPBsZN-03-31, CPBsZN-04-34, CPBsZN-05-35, CPBsZN-06-36, and CPBsZN-07-38) were pathogenic in oil palm, with incidences greater than 90% and a maximum severity of 34%, and the highest severity index was found in isolates CPBsZN-03-31, CPBsZN-04-34, and CPBsZN-06-36. The pathogen was recovered from inoculated oil palms in all cases. This study reveals the pathogenic association of Ganoderma zonatum with BSR in Colombia.

Loglinear modeling of the “duster” condition in the African oil palm in Colombia

A new physiopathy in oil palms that has been called "duster" for which at present no causal agent is known, is gaining interest in agronomic research. In 2015 we carried out a count of reproductive structures to evaluate the severity in genetic materials of three different origins in a plantation in Colombia. The aim was to determine the possible relationships between disorder and the presence of reproductive structures . For the data analysis a cluster analysis was performed and then we assessed the relative risk between the state of the disorder, the origin and structures of the plant and we applied a log-linear model to study the dependence between variables classified in clusters: palms showing high fruiting and grouped with low fruiting. We observed that fruiting was not statistically related to the presence of physiopathy. We also observed that Brabanta origin were the least susceptible and showed the best fruiting.

Molecular identification of Bursaphelenchus cocophilus associated to oil palm (Elaeis guineensis) crops in Tibu (North Santander, Colombia).

The red ring nematode (Bursaphelenchus cocophilus (Cobb) Baujard 1989) has been registered in oil palm crops in the North, Central and Eastern zones of Colombia. In Tibu (North Santander), there are doubts regarding the diagnostic and identity of the disease. Oil palm crops in Tibu with the external and internal symptoms were inspected, and tissue samples were taken from different parts of the palm. The refrigerated samples were carried to the laboratory of Oleoflores in Tibu for processing. The light microscopy was used for the quantification and morphometric identification of the nematodes. Specimens of the nematode were used for DNA extraction, to amplify the segment D2-D3 of the large subunit of ribosomal RNA (28S) and perform BLAST and a phylogeny study. The most frequently symptoms were chlorosis of the young leaves, thin leaflets, collapsed, and dry lower leaves, beginning of roughening, accumulation of arrows and short leaves. Bursaphelenchus, was recovered in most of the tissues from the samples analyzed: stem, petiole bases, inflorescences, peduncle of bunches, and base of arrows in variable populations. The morphometric data and sequences obtained for the segment D2-D3 confirms to B. cocophilus as the causal agent of red ring disease on oil palms in the study area. For our knowledge, this study reports the first partial sequences of segment D2-D3 of B. cocophilus in oil palm in Colombia.

Formal rules and its role in centralised-diffusion systems: A study of small-scale producers of oil palm in Colombia

This paper explores the different pathways of technology diffusion and the resulting impacts on technology adoption that can emerge following a strategy to incorporate vulnerable communities of small-scale producers into traditionally top-down governance agribusiness systems. Building on the Contract Farming Arrangements (CFA) literature, we suggest that despite high levels of top-down control and the mono systems of diffusion that these practices imply, diffusion forms can vary considerably according to the motivations that drive different types of producers and the variances in local governance. We summarise these diffusion forms as a diffusion pathway of governance dictated by dominant change agent control and a diffusion pathway of governance dictated by change agent control and user participation. An important contribution of the paper is to highlight the critical role of formal rules in defining the types of governance for the creation of these different pathways. However, additional factors associated with the participation of smallholders such as attachment to land, engagement in collective action and long-term sustainability visions also introduce variations in these pathways and define the results of technology adoption. The study focuses on the Colombian oil palm sector; a key agribusiness sector targeted by policy makers with a strategy to integrate small-scale farmers into the agribusiness value chain as a means to relieve poverty and reduce levels of rural violence associated with conflicts over land and production of elicit crops.

Efficacy of Metarhizium anisopliae to control adults of Haplaxius crudus (Van Duzee) (Hemiptera: Cixiidae), vector of lethal wilt disease of oil palm in Colombia

Haplaxius crudus (Van Duzee) is the vector of the pathogen that causes Lethal wilt disease, one of the most important diseases of oil palm in Colombia. Currently, H. crudus populations are controlled with calendar applications of chemical insecticides, however, their efficacy and effect on the ecosystem are unknown. The use of entomopathogenic fungi such as Metarhizium anisopliae may be an alternative to control this pest in the crop since this fungus has been isolated from adults of H. crudus found in oil palm plantations. Therefore, the objective of this study was to evaluate the efficacy of 10 native strains of M. anisopliae to control adults of H. crudus under laboratory and field conditions. The strain CPMa1309 was selected because it caused mortalities in H. crudus adults greater than 90% at a dose of 1 × 1012 conidia/ha, as well as for its capacity to grow rapidly and produce large numbers of conidia on an artificial medium (4.95 × 107 conidia/ml). These results show the possibility of incorporating the fungus M. anisopliae CPMa1309 in an integrated management program for the biological control of H. crudus but it is important to validate its effectiveness under different agro-ecological conditions, where oil palm grows in Colombia.

Colombia’s oil palm development in times of war and ‘peace’: Myths, enablers and the disparate realities of land control

Between 1993 and 2015 the land planted to oil palm in Colombia increased fourfold, from 119,000ha to 484,000ha. This rapid growth coincided with a period of extreme armed conflict and displacement, with inequality in land distribution reaching the highest levels in Latin America (Oxfam, 2017). These occurrences spurred this inquiry into conditions on the ground in the palm growing zones and the political and economic forces promoting the crop. The theoretical underpinnings are derived from the literature on land grabbing, land control, land concentration and exclusion. Oil palm has been favoured by rural elites, conservative governments and right-wing paramilitaries in an attempted ‘modernising’ of the countryside through agro-industry. Neo-liberal ideas emphasising capital accumulation through the ‘market’ have minimised land reform efforts and impeded post-conflict land restitution. The paper is organised in three main parts. Part 1 introduces the crop and its importance, linked to oil palm's culture of continuous expansion. Relevant theoretical concepts are discussed, together with the background to land and violence in Colombia. Part 2 begins the more detailed analysis of the palm oil industry. A descriptive survey of historical beginnings, modern data availability and distribution of holdings is followed by a more nuanced analysis of industry-induced ‘myths’ and political ‘enablers’ through the Uribe years (2002–10) and the Santos era (2010–2018). In Part 3 the evidence for ‘stolen land’ is examined in representative oil palm locations. The findings are summarised in the conclusion. • Colombia's oil palm area quadrupled in a period of armed conflict and displacement. • The increase was officially attributed to state assistance and new lands from ‘alliances’. • Peasant displacement and ‘cleaning’ of titles consolidated land control. • Despite patchy evidence, case studies have supported findings of ‘stolen land’. • The rural lowlands are modernising but land access remains highly inequitable.

Mass Rearing of &amp;lt;i&amp;gt;Haplaxius crudus&amp;lt;/i&amp;gt; (Hemiptera: Cixiidae), an Important Insect Pest in the Palm Oil Industry of Colombia

The palm leafhopper, Haplaxius crudus (Van Duzee) (Hemiptera: Cixiidae), is a vector of the pathogen that causes the lethal wilt disease in oil palm in Colombia. The development of a methodology for mass rearing of this insect is required to study its biology, behavior, population control, and to determine the causal agent of the lethal wilt disease. The experiment was carried out in Colombia, at the Research Experimental Center Palmar de las Corocoras of Cenipalma. The environmental conditions of the rearing unit during the study were 25.7±3.4°C, and 85±13% R. H. The mass production of H. crudus required the performance of five processes: 1) Planting and maintenance of Panicum maximum Jacq. cv. Mombasa grass, which hosts H. crudus nymphs, and of coconut palms (Cocos nucifera L.) var. dwarf yellow, to hold the adult insects; 2) Collecting nymphs in fields to create a breeding stock; 3) Infesting clumps of P. maximum grass with H. crudus eggs; 4) Maintaining the infested clumps, and 5) Trapping of emerging adults in cages. The time from the infestation of the clumps of grass, to the emergence of adults took 56.2±4.1 days. The rearing unit reached an average production of 3,145 adults per week (52.8% female and 47.2% male). The development of this rearing enables the production of enough H. crudus individuals to research lethal wilt, to mitigate the impact of this disease on the Colombian oil palm growing industry.

Pathogenicity of Malaysian Phytophthora palmivora on cocoa, durian, rubber and oil palm determines the threat of bud rot disease

AbstractThe epidemic of bud rot disease affecting oil palm in Colombia is primarily caused by Phytophthora palmivora. The pathogen has a cosmopolitan presence that includes Southeast Asia, but to date, bud rot has not been reported in this region. This study provides an overview of the potential risk of Malaysian P. palmivora isolates cross‐infecting other host species, including cocoa, durian, rubber and Malaysian oil palm planting materials (Dura × Pisifera, D × P). On cocoa pods, the durian isolate PP7 caused dark brown necrotic lesions. Detached leaf bioassays showed that P. palmivora isolates PP3 and PP7 infected different hosts, except rubber foliage without wounding. Inoculation tests on cocoa, durian and rubber seedlings caused brown necrotic lesions when stems were wounded, with 10% mortality in cocoa and durian at 17 days post‐inoculation (dpi). However, no further infection was observed, and lesions closed within 14–28 dpi on the non‐wounded seedlings. Pathogenicity tests of oil palm seedlings inoculated with isolates PP3 and PP7 indicated that Malaysian P. palmivora isolates were not pathogenic to oil palms based on localized infection observed only through wounding. Overall, the work demonstrated that Malaysian P. palmivora isolates were able to cross‐infect multiple hosts but did not show severe infections on oil palms.

Molecular characterization of Phytophthora palmivora responsible for bud rot disease of oil palm in Colombia.

Bud rot disease is a damaging disease of oil palm in Colombia. The pathogen responsible for this disease is a species of oomyctes, Phytophthora palmivora which is also the causal pathogen of several tropical crop diseases such as fruit rot and stem canker of cocoa, rubber, durian and jackfruit. No outbreaks of bud rot have been reported in oil palm in Malaysia or other Southeast Asian countries, despite this particular species being present in the region. Analysis of the genomic sequences of several genetic markers; the internal transcribe spacer regions (ITS) of the ribosomal RNA gene cluster, beta-tubulin gene, translation elongation factor 1 alpha gene (EF-1α), cytochrome c oxidase subunit I & II (COXI and COXII) gene cluster along with amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP) analyses have been carried out to investigate the genetic diversity and variation of P. palmivora isolates from around the world and from different hosts in comparison to Colombian oil palm isolates, as one of the steps in understanding why this species of oomycetes causes devastating damage to oil palm in Latin America but not in other regions. Phylogenetic analyses of these regions showed that the Colombian oil palm isolates were not separated from Malaysian isolates. AFLP analysis and a new marker PPHPAV, targeting an unclassified hypothetical protein, was found to be able to differentiate Malaysian and Colombian isolates and showed a clear clade separations. Despite this, pathogenicity studies did not show any significant differences in the level of aggressiveness of different isolates against oil palm in glasshouse tests.

Identifying critical limits in oil palm cover for the conservation of terrestrial mammals in Colombia

As oil palm plantations continue to expand in Neotropical regions, identifying critical transitions in land use, at which animal communities can be drastically altered, is crucial for conservation planning. Here, we investigated potential unexpected change points (thresholds) in the response of terrestrial mammal's richness and community composition to increasing oil palm cover in the Llanos region of Colombia. We deployed camera traps to detect species across 56 sites (landscapes of ~220 ha each) and used segmented regression and Threshold Indicator Taxa Analysis (TITAN) for the identification of these thresholds. We found a negative linear relationship between the proportion of oil palm and species richness, but no evidence of a threshold. In contrast, we found strong signs of a community threshold when oil palm cover in the study area reached 45–75%, at which mammalian species composition (taxon-specific changes of abundance and occurrence frequency) drastically changed. When species were assessed individually, a significant threshold relationship to oil palm cover was found to occur in 10 of the 15 examined species, with four (squirrel, agouti, spiny rat, common opossum) having a negative drastic change at approximately 45% oil palm cover. Five species showed no evidence for any critical threshold (giant and lesser anteater, jaguarondi, white-tailed deer and raccoon). We used the community threshold identified above as a baseline to evaluate the conservation status of the four oil palm production zones in Colombia. We found that approximately 41% of the total area covered by oil palm in Colombia has crossed the identified threshold of 45–75%, suggesting urgent need for forest restoration to increase its extent if a collapse of their resident mammal communities is to be avoided. These findings provide guidance for the design of sustainable landscapes within production areas in Colombia to promote the conservation of terrestrial mammals.

Understanding the expansion of energy crops beyond the global biofuel boom: evidence from oil palm expansion in Colombia

BackgroundThe global palm oil market experienced a remarkable boom since the year 2000. Since palm oil can be used for biodiesel production, the global expansion of oil palm cultivation has been associated with the global biofuel boom. Biofuel policies—especially those adopted in the European Union (EU)—have been blamed for the socio-environmental impacts of oil palm expansion. We explore how the global biofuel boom interacts with national geographies and social-economic and political processes to produce country-specific trajectories of biofuel crops expansion. We analyse the expansion of oil palm cultivation in Colombia between 2000 and 2010 from a political ecology perspective.MethodsThe analysis is based on a framework that positions expansion of commodity frontiers within the ‘space-of-flows’ and the ‘space-of-place’. Through this approach, we identify the markets and geographies that define the country-specific trajectories of expansion of oil palm in Colombia, and their connections with general patterns of land control. The empirical analysis is based on primary data collected during fieldwork, and on an extensive review of secondary data about the palm oil sector and the socio-environmental effects of oil palm expansion in the country.ResultsThe contemporary oil palm expansion in Colombia was not specifically influenced by the international biofuel market. Expansion was characterized by an increasing production of palm oil for biodiesel, to supply a policy-driven national biofuel market controlled by national palm oil producers. The evidence shows that this oil palm expansion proceeded through a variety of land control practices that constitute forms of ‘accumulation by dispossession’ and ‘assimilation’. These are embedded in contextual factors that include the agrarian history of Colombia, the armed conflict, and government policies.ConclusionsOur study shows that the ways in which expansion of biofuel crops unfold in each producing country depend not only on the global biofuel market. They are also shaped by the country-specific geographies and political economies. Therefore, research and policies on the global expansion of energy crops should account for the complex and interrelated factors that mediate the specific ways in which the global demand for biofuels creates biofuel crop booms at country level.

Bud Rot Caused by Phytophthora palmivora: A Destructive Emerging Disease of Oil Palm

Oomycetes from the genus Phytophthora are among the most important plant pathogens in agriculture. Epidemics caused by P. infestans precipitated the great Irish famine and had a major impact on society and human history. In the tropics, P. palmivora is a pathogen of many plant species including cacao (Theobroma cacao), citrus (Citrus sp.), durian (Durio zibethines), jackfruit (Artrocarpus heterophyllus), rubber (Hevea brasiliensis), and several palm species including coconut (Cocos nucifera), and the African oil palm (Elaeis guineensis) as determined recently. The first localized epidemics of bud rot in oil palm in Colombia were reported in 1964. However, recent epidemics of bud rot have destroyed more than 70,000 ha of oil palm in the Western and Central oil palm growing regions of Colombia. The agricultural, social, and economic implications of these outbreaks have been significant in Colombia. Identification of the pathogen after 100 years of investigating the disease in the world enabled further understanding of infection, expression of a range of symptoms, and epidemiology of the disease. This review examines the identification of P. palmivora as the cause of bud rot in Colombia, its epidemiology, and discusses the importance of P. palmivora as a major threat to oil palm plantings globally.

Effects of Temperature on the Development ofStenoma impressella(Lepidoptera: Elachistidae) on Oil Palm in Colombia

Abstract Stenoma impressella Busck (Lepidoptera: Elachistidae) is an important oil palm pest and its life history and life table parameters were studied at various temperatures, from 16 °C to 40 °C. Females and males developed successfully into adults between 20 °C and 36 °C. However, no eggs were found at 10 °C and all the adults died after exposure to 40 °C. The developmental time from egg to adult was higher (170.5 days) at 15 °C and lower (76.6 days) at 35 °C. Therefore, temperature has a strong effect on the development of S. impressella from 15 °C to 35 °C. The reproductive period varied between 15–35 °C with 6.82 to 3.24 days for pre-oviposition, 17.5 to 4.89 days for oviposition, and 5.29 to 0.82 days for the postoviposition period. Female longevity was longer than that of the male, at all temperatures. The population growth parameters of S. impressella net reproductive rate (R0), intrinsic rate increase (rm), finite increase rate (λ), mean generation time (T) and doubling time (D) were significan...