Oil Palm Empty Fruit Bunch Fiber Research Articles

Biofilm Formation on Denture Base Material Reinforced With a Novel Organic Material.

Microcrystalline cellulose (MCC) is a novel organic material developed by one of the authors in this study. When MCC was incorporated with conventionally available denture base resin, it demonstrated increased flexural strength and flexural modulus. However, it was speculated that because the material is organic, it can promote the growth of Candida. The purpose of this study is to evaluate the Candida albicans biofilm formation on polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA) denture base resin incorporated with MCC. MCC is an organic material extracted from the oil palm empty fruit bunch (OPEFB). The growth of C. albicans and biofilm formation in three test groups were compared by biofilm assay and imaging techniques like microscopy (by safranin staining) and scanning electron microscopy. The three test groups were comprised of MCC-reinforced PMMA containing OPEFB fibers of 50-micrometer thickness at 5% weight reinforcement, conventionally and commercially available heat cure PMMA, and an empty well to assess any discrepancies from the environment. The test groups showed increased biofilm formation by C. albicans compared to commercially and conventionally available heat cure PMMA. Reinforcement with MCC showed higher biofilm formation of 1.43 times higher compared to conventional PMMA. Biofilms formed by Candida albicans on MCC-reinforced PMMA appeared heterogeneous in structure, comprised of yeast cells and hyphae, surrounded by a higher density of polysaccharide extracellular matrix material compared to that of conventionally available heat cure PMMA. Biofilm formation is increased in denture base resin incorporated with MCC. More investigation is warranted to study the antifungal efficacy of the addition of antifungal agents to the reinforced denture base resin.

The potential of oil palm empty fruit bunches from Blitar Regency Indonesia as a filling material for NPK slow-release fertilizer

Abstract There is a clear gap between the mechanism of slow-release fertilizer (SRF) to promote plant growth and the prominent role of nanocomposites as filler materials for SRF synthesis. However, the production source of oil palm empty fruit bunches (OPEFB) is considered to influence its characteristics as a filler in new materials. This research aims to review the characteristics of OPEFB from Blitar Regency, East Java Province, Indonesia as a filling material for NPK-SRF fertilizer. The characteristics of OPEFB consist of analysis of nutritional content using proximate, nutritional content using Van Soest, morphology and topography using a scanning electron microscope (SEM), crystal phase using X-ray diffraction (XRD), and chemical compound composition using Fourier transformation infrared spectroscopy (FTIR). The identification results show that OPEFB has the potential to be used as a filler in NPK-SRF production. This can be seen from the high cellulose content (41.7%), with quite similar crystallinity index as native OPEFB fibers. The morphology of OPEFB shows a porous structure with a not uniform pore distribution, pore channel structure, and a not-quite-smooth pore surface. However, slight modifications to the cellulose from OPEFB need to be made, such as purifying it into a single nano-sized cellulose.

Fabrication and characterization of biocomposite pellets from cassava starch and oil palm empty fruit bunch fibers

Oil palm empty fruit bunches (OPEFB) are lignocellulosic biomass that can be used to produce a biocomposite as an alternative to substitute non-renewable materials, such as plastic. Generally, the production of biocomposites uses OPEFB, which has been processed into cellulose, microcrystalline cellulose, or nanocellulose and is mixed with starch. However, the OPEFB pretreatment into various types of cellulose requires a long process and many chemicals. The OPEFB pretreatment with less process, such as cutting to shorter fibers and without chemicals, was expected to shorten the process. This study aims to produce and evaluate the characteristics of biocomposite pellets from a combination of cassava starch and OPEFB fibers. Short OPEFB fibers (3-5 mm) with varying concentrations of 0, 5, 10, 15, and 20% were added to the cassava starch before mixing with other materials. The twin screw extruder used to produce biocomposite pellets was set at six temperature zones ranging from 85-140 °C and the screw speed in the range of 160-190 rpm. The results show that higher concentrations of OPEFB fibers produced darker pellets, which tended to be greyish. The biocomposite pellets had densities of 1.322-1.417 g cm-3. SEM results show some agglomerations on the surface of starch-OPEFB fibers biocomposite pellets. The water solubility of biocomposite pellets ranged from 32.97 – 36.44%. In conclusion, biocomposite pellets could be produced from a mixture of cassava starch and OPEFB fibers up to 20%. In its application for rigid packaging production, the biocomposite pellets’ performance could be improved by mixing them with recycled polypropylene.

Recycled Household Plastic and Oil Palm Filler Reinforced Epoxy Composite for Lightweight Construction Applications

Polypropylene is extensively used in aerospace, automotive and construction applications due to its versatile properties. This project aims to reduce plastic and oil palm waste and promote the development of strong, sustainable and eco-friendly construction materials. The objective of this project is to develop a sustainable yet high-performance construction material by incorporating polypropylene particles, oil palm empty fruit bunch (OPEFB) fibres and oil palm shell (OPS) particles into epoxy composites through the hand lay-up method. The composite specimens undergo ASTM D638 tensile test to determine the tensile properties. The addition of PP particles in varying weights shows decrease in tensile strength, likely due to poor dispersion and compatibility with the epoxy matrix. Incorporating 3 wt% OPEFB fibres with fibre length from 2mm to 4mm improves tensile strength by 2.32% and 23.36% respectively at higher PP particle loadings which are 15 wt% and 25 wt%. Adding 1 wt% and 3 wt% OPS particles improves the tensile strength by 2.96% and 4.68% respectively, in composites with 10 wt% PP particles and 3 wt% OPEFB fibres. The tensile performance may be improved by treating PP particles with compatibilizers such as silane or maleic anhydride grafted polypropylene.

Recycling of deep eutectic solvent in the extraction of ferulic acid from oil palm empty fruit bunch.

The study explored ferulic acid extraction from palm empty fruit bunch (EFB) fiber using deep eutectic solvent (DES) of chlorine chloride-acetic acid as the extraction medium and the way to recover and recycle the DES thereafter. Antisolvent was added to selectively precipitate the ferulic acid, which was recovered by filtration thereafter. Recycling the DES without further purification led to increased ferulic acid yield with each subsequent extraction, likely due to retained ferulic acid. The retained ferulic acid and other impurities could be removed by precipitation brought upon by the addition of a second antisolvent. 1H nuclear magnetic resonance revealed that there was no excess ferulic acid in the recycled DES-treated with two types of antisolvents (ethanol and water). The yield of ferulic acid increased from 0.1367-0.1856g/g when treated with only one antisolvent to 0.1368-0.2897g/g with two antisolvent treatments. Oil droplets were also observed in the DES upon the addition of antisolvent 2, with recovered oil ranging from 0.6% to 3%. The study emphasized the significance of using DES as an extraction medium for ferulic acid from oil palm EFB fiber and the method to recycle the DES for subsequent processes.

From Renewable Biomass to Water Purification Systems: Oil Palm Empty Fruit Bunch as Bio-Adsorbent for Domestic Wastewater Remediation and Methylene Blue Removal

Oil palm empty fruit bunch fibers (OPEFBF), in three size ranges (small: 250–450 µm, medium: 450–600 µm, large: 600–800 µm), were investigated as a filter-bed material in biofilters for the removal of organic matter and nutrients. After saturation, these fibers (post) were used in the removal of methylene blue through batch processes. The batch adsorption tests included optimizing the adsorbent dosage (0.5–32.0 g/L) and contact time (2.5–60.0 min). Experimental data were fitted to various kinetic/isotherm models. Instrumental characterization of both raw and post fibers was conducted. Post fibers underwent morphological/compositional changes due to the presence of microorganisms and their byproducts. Efficiencies reached up to 94% for chemical oxygen demand (COD), 88.4% for total nitrogen and 77.2% for total phosphorus. In batch adsorption, methylene blue removal exceeded 90%, underscoring the effectiveness of small raw OPEFBF and large post OPEFBF. Kinetic models indicated that raw OPEFBF better fit the pseudo-first-order model, while post OPEFBF better fit the pseudo-second-order model. Both types of OPEFBF showed a good fit with the Freundlich model (higher R2, lower χ2 and SSE). Particularly, large post OPEFBF stood out as the most efficient adsorbent, achieving a maximum adsorption capacity of 12.02 mg/g for methylene blue. Therefore, raw/post OPEFBF could be an alternative to remove contaminants from wastewater.

Biocomposite Innovation: Assessing Tensile and Flexural Performance with Maleated Natural Rubber Additives

Fiberglass is the most common reinforcing fiber used in composites, with polymer matrices having high tensile strength and chemical resistance, including an excellent insulating property; however, they are non-degradable. Natural fiber reinforced polymer composites have advantageous properties such as lower density and price, when compared to synthetic composite products. In addition, hybrid composites may be obtained depending on various properties such as the fibers' length, structure, content and orientation, matrix bonding and arrangement. This study was carried out to determine the effect of adding Maleated Natural Rubber (MNR) from natural rubber as a coupling agent, in order to produce the highest tensile and flexural strength. The hand lay-up and vacuum bag methods with the Response Surface Method-Central Composite Design (RSM). -CCD) were used. The composite arrangement pattern was E-glass/OPEFB/E-glass, the volume fraction of OPEFB (oil palm empty fruit bunches):E-glass was 40:60, 50:50 and 60:40, the fraction volume of OPEFB + E-glass:matrix was 40:60, 50: 50, 60: 40 and the coupling agent were added by 9, 10 and 11% of the total epoxy resin used. Furthermore, the composite mold was made of glass with dimensions of 200mm x 50mm x 50mm. The results showed that the composite product obtained from both methods had a tensile strength value, which was influenced by the variable OPEFB fiber and epoxy resin. Meanwhile, the flexural strength was influenced by the OPEFB fiber and the quadratic factor of the epoxy-MNR resin.

A two‐stage analysis for the role of fiber size in terms of length distribution on the performance under accelerated weathering tests of oil palm empty fruit bunch fiber‐reinforced vinyl acrylic composites

AbstractThe performance of natural fiber‐reinforced polymer composites (NFRPCs) can be markedly affected by fiber length, to the extent that a sole mean value and standard deviation fail to accurately represent its overall dispersion. Hence, measuring the variability of fiber length is crucial to comprehend its influence on the properties of the resulting composites. Unfortunately, few studies have been conducted on this topic. This work consisted of two research stages: the first related to the effect of both fiber length distribution and processing temperature on the properties of oil palm empty fruit bunch (OPEFB) fiber‐reinforced vinyl acrylic composites, while the second stage analyzed the influence of the fiber length distribution on the material performance under accelerated weathering tests. Broadly, composites were characterized by tensile mechanical testing, optical microscopy and SEM, FTIR spectroscopy, TGA, and microbiological analysis. The key results showed that processing the material at temperatures surpassing 75°C did not lead to a homogenous phase between the components, rendering it unworthy of consideration. Furthermore, composites containing the longest OPEFB fibers exhibited the lowest elongation‐at‐break values. Regarding the incidence of aging treatments, pronounced effects were observed in those composites exposed to UV radiation and salt fog. In detail, the elongation at break decreased by up to 34%, while the tensile strength increased by up to 1 MPa, and Young's modulus rose by up to 17%. Finally, two fungal genera, Fusarium sp. and Rhizophydium sp., were identified on the OPEFB fibers; nevertheless, no fungal growth was observed on the composites.Highlights Natural reinforcement/filler size measured as fiber length distribution. Effect of fiber length distribution on composite performance. Composite performance after accelerated weathering tests.

Investigation of mechanical properties and dynamic characteristics of OPEFB Fiber Composite

Composite materials is increasingly experiencing an increa- sing trend, the manufacture of composites currently uses a lot of natural fiber reinforcement, Oil Palm Empty Fruit Bunches (OPEFB) fiber is a fiber that comes from oil palm empty fruit bunches waste that grows a lot in Indonesia and has the potential to be used as reinforcement in the manufacture of composites. With natural fiber reinforcement. The manufacture of composites in this study varied the fiber volume fraction by 5%, 15%, and 25%. Many previous studies on composite materials have focused on studying the physical and mechanical properties of composites. Even though damage to a structure or material is not only caused by static loads but also by dynamic loads. Vibration is a dynamic load experienced by material or structure, so it is necessary to determine the dynamic character of composite materials, one of the dynamic characteristics of materials is their natural frequency, the determination of the natural frequency in this study was carried out by using the finite element method in the ANSYS software. The results of the analysis in the form of tensile strength values and modulus of elasticity were obtained from tensile testing and dynamic characters in the form of natural frequencies and vibration modes were obtained from the analysis modal simulation process. From the results of the tensile test, it was found that the composite with a variation of 15% OPEFB fiber volume had the highest tensile strength and modulus of elasticity, as well as the results of the analysis modal simulation, a composite with 15% OPPEFB fiber, had the highest natural frequency value among the other two variations.

Depolymerization of Cellulose Components from Oil Palm Empty Fruit Bunches in Bleaching and Delignification Process

Oil palm empty fruit bunches (OPEFB) are oil palm industry waste which is indeed abundant. OPEFB waste has been explorated to make fiber, cellulose, and its derivatives. In the process of extracting cellulose, there is depolymerization of several components, both hemicellulose, lignin, color, and structural elements. The combination of bleaching under acidic conditions and alkaline delignification gave different changes, one of which depends on the type of bleacher, concentration, reaction time, and the number of stages carried out. This study aimed to examine the effect of NaClO2 concentration and bleaching time on the physical and chemical characteristics that indicate the depolymerization process of OPEFB fiber. Depolymerization can be indicated by changes in the cellulose color, the content of cellulose, and the changes in cellulose crystallinity. The change of cellulose mass was affected by the bleacher concentration and the bleaching time. High concentrations of bleacher will reduce the cellulose mass significantly. Similarly, the depolymerization of the chromophore elements in OPEFB fiber will show a change in color from brown to gray-white with different brightness intensities. The XRD test indicated that there was a correlation between low crystallinity with the use of high bleacher concentrations.

Effect of Chemical Pre-Treatment on the Catalytic Performance of Oil Palm EFB Fibre Supported Magnetic Acid Catalyst

The development of heterogenous catalysts using renewable materials has received wide attention. A heterogenous catalyst has been a preferred choice as it evades the disadvantages of homogeneous catalysts, nevertheless, heterogenous catalysts has limited activity and a longer separation process. The current study emphasises the preparation of a new magnetic catalyst using oil palm empty fruit bunch (EFB) fibre as a carbon-based support material. The effect of different alkaline pre-treatments over the methyl ester conversion rate were investigated. The catalyst preparation parameters were studied by using the single factor optimisation approach, including the fibre loading, impregnation time, calcination temperature, and calcination time. Their effects in the esterification of oleic acid were investigated in this study. The optimisation study shows that the Na2CO3-treated(T)-EFBC magnetic catalyst had the highest esterification rate of 93.5% with 7 g EFB fibre loading, a 2 h impregnation time and a calcination temperature of 500 °C for 2 h. The catalyst possessed a good acidity of 3.5 mmol/g with excellent magnetism properties. This study showed that the catalysts are magnetically separable and exhibited good stability with 82.1% after five cycles. The oil palm EFB supported magnetic acid catalyst indicates it as a potential option to the existing solid catalysts that is economical and environmentally friendly for the esterification process.

Enhancing Compatibility and Mechanical Properties of Natural Rubber Composites

Pure natural rubber (NR) exhibits low mechanical properties, necessitating the incorporation of additives like vulcanizing agents and fillers. Carbon black and silica, conventional fillers, are relatively expensive and not environmentally friendly. This study explores using Oil Palm Empty Fruit Bunch (OPEFB) fiber as an affordable, abundant, and biodegradable alternative filler for NR. However, compatibility issues arise between the nonpolar NR and the polar OPEFB fiber. A latex-starch hybrid coupling agent (CA (NR-St)) was added to the composite formulation to address this. NR, OPEFB fiber, and the coupling agent were mixed using an open roll mill with a 10 phr OPEFB filler loading and coupling agent concentrations of 0, 1, 2, and 3 phr. Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), rheology, and mechanical property tests revealed that the coupling agent improved the compatibility between NR and OPEFB fibers, as evidenced by increased tensile strength and stiffness. The composite with 3-phr coupling agent exhibited the best performance with tensile strength and stiffness values of 25.6 MPa and 3.7 MPa, respectively. This increase in mechanical properties has the potential to act as a catalyst for increasing the use of renewable materials in the rubber industrial sector, especially the automotive industry.

Perilaku Hambatan Panas pada Papan Partisi diperkuat Serat Tandan Kosong Kelapa Sawit

The goal of this research was to determine the heat resistance behavior of polymer composite fiber boards with oil palm empty fruit bunches (OPEFB) fillers as influenced by mass density and water absorption, with the hope that partition boards with OPEFB fiber fillers could reduce the heat entering the room from outside vines through directly exposed walls. The partition board under discussion is a heat insulator with a thermal conductivity test impacted by the mass density of the composite. The test method used is ASTM-C-177-2013, which consists of measuring heat propagation by modifying a 40-watt heat source and testing specimens from polymer composite partition boards formed based on standards obtained from partition forming boards with a matrix of polyester resin SHCP 2667 WNC fraction weight with a fiber weight ratio of 25 wt.%, 30 wt.%, and 35 wt.% randomly arranged (chopped strand mat/CSM). The highest thermal conductivity value was observed in a 25 wt.% fiber weight ratio of 0.141 W/m. o C at a void percentage of 7.65% for a 5 minutes test time; 0.146 W/m. o C for a 10 minutes test time; 0.151 W/m. o C for 15 minutes test time at a mass density of 1.16 gr/cm. While the 35 wt.% fiber weight ratio has the lowest thermal conductivity value of 0.137 W/m. o C at a void percentage of 4.24% for a 5 minutes test time; 0.142 W/m. o C for a 10 minutes test time; and 0.147 W/m. o C for a 15 minutes test time at a mass density of 1.24 gr/cm 3 and a water absorption capacity of 3.75%. According to the investigation’s findings, the higher the water absorption capacity, the higher the thermal conductivity of the partition board, and the higher the mass density, the lower the thermal conductivity. As a result, the lower the value of the thermal conductivity of the partition board, the better the insulating properties.

On the Response to Aging of OPEFB/Acrylic Composites: A Fungal Degradation Perspective.

Biological agents and their metabolic activity produce significant changes over the microstructure and properties of composites reinforced with natural fibers. In the present investigation, oil palm empty fruit bunch (OPEFB) fiber-reinforced acrylic thermoplastic composites were elaborated at three processing temperatures and subjected to water immersion, Prohesion cycle, and continuous salt-fog aging testing. After exposition, microbiological identification was accomplished in terms of fungal colonization. The characterization was complemented by weight loss, mechanical, infrared, and thermogravimetric analysis, as well as scanning electron microscopy. As a result of aging, fungal colonization was observed exclusively after continuous salt fog treatment, particularly by different species of Aspergillus spp. genus. Furthermore, salt spray promoted filamentous fungi growth producing hydrolyzing enzymes capable of degrading the cell walls of OPEFB fibers. In parallel, these fibers swelled due to humidity, which accelerated fungal growth, increased stress, and caused micro-cracks on the surface of composites. This produced the fragility of the composites, increasing Young's modulus, and decreasing both elongation at break and toughness. The infrared spectra showed changes in the intensity and appearance of bands associated with functional groups. Thermogravimetric results confirmed fungal action as the main cause of the deterioration.

Comparative Examinations of Structural Responses of Concrete Reinforced with Treated Oil Palm Empty Fruit Bunch (TOPEFB) and Untreated Oil Palm Empty Fruit Bunch (OPEFB) Fibres

The findings from the investigation conducted, to compare the structural performance of concrete containing treated (TOPEFB) and untreated Empty Oil Palm Fruit Bunch (OPEFB) fibres are presented in this paper. For the TOPEFB fibres, the dried fibres were treated with 0.2% NAOH solution following the procedures of appropriate authority. The structural parameters investigated were consistencies, setting times, densities, compressive and tensile strengths of concrete incorporating TOPEFB and OPEFB fibres in the mix. The addition of fibres was limited to 1.20% by weight of cement in the concrete. The interval of addition was 0.2%. The results showed that (i) the setting times of mortars containing TOPEFB fibres were higher than that of mortars with OPEFB fibres, (ii) concrete specimens containing TOPEFB fibres are more workable that concrete specimens with OPEFB fibres, (iii) densities of concrete specimens containing OPEFB fibres were in the range for normal concrete applications while the densities for specimens with TOPEFB developed densities that fell in the heavy weight concrete classification, (iv) concrete specimens containing TOPEFB fibres developed higher compressive strengths than specimens with OPEFB fibres and (v) tensile strengths of concrete specimens containing TOPEFB fibres were higher than specimens with OPEFB fibres by at least 59.04%. The overall conclusion from the findings of this study is that concrete specimens containing TOPEFB fibres have superior structural properties than specimens with OPEFB fibres

Delignification’s effect on microcrystalline cellulose obtained from oil palm empty fruit bunch fibres

The effects of acidified chlorite (NaClO2) and totally chlorine free (TCF) bleaching were evaluated relative to the properties of microcrystalline cellulose (MCC) fabricated from oil palm empty fruit bunch fibres (OPEFB). The MCC properties were analyzed using X-ray diffraction (XRD), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) methods, and they were compared with commercial MCC. The results revealed that all MCC belongs to cellulose type 1 and OPEFB-NaClO2-MCC showed a higher crystallinity index than OPEFB-TCF-MCC. The TGA indicated that all MCC samples showed a higher decomposition temperature compared to pure cellulose. However, OPEFB-NaClO2-MCC showed better thermal stability than OPEFB-TCF-MCC. It was clear from SEM images that the different MCC particles had rough surfaces and micro-sized particles. Overall, results confirmed that the obtained MCC samples displayed comparable properties with those of commercial MCC. The MCC produced from OPEFB using NaClO2 is a promising material to prepare high value-added products compared to MCC produced using TCF delignification treatment.

Impact of Zinc Oxide Addition on Oil Palm Empty Fruit Bunches Foamed Polymer Composites for Automotive Interior Parts

The sustainable use of agricultural waste to generate valuable products while minimizing environmental burdens is increasing rapidly. Multiple sources of fibers have been intensively studied concerning their application in various fields and industries. However, few publications have extensively discussed the property's performance of oil palm empty fruit bunches (OPEFB) composites. With main properties similar to composites currently listed for industrial applications, OPEFB is worth listing as a potential composite for industrial applications and non-structural material alternatives. OPEFB-reinforced polymer composites are expected to be applied to automotive interior parts. This study aims to determine the effect of adding zinc oxide (ZnO) and polyurethane on OPEFB-reinforced polymer composites for automotive interior parts. This composite was produced using the hand lay-up method with 70% resin, 15% OPEFB fiber, 15% polyurethane as a blowing agent, and four variations of ZnO at 5%, 10%, 15%, and 20%. The OPEFB particle sizes are 40, 60, 80, and 100, respectively. The composite was examined to determine mechanical, morphology, chemical, and thermal characteristics. It was observed that the addition of 20% ZnO caused ZnO agglomeration, weakening the interfacial bond between OPEFB particles, polyester, polyurethane, and ZnO filler. Overall, the results showed that adding ZnO and polyurethane to the composite increased tensile, compressive, flexural, and impact strength, as well as thermal stability with more significant values up to 160%, 225%, 100%, 100%, and 4.3%, respectively. This result depicted that the best composition was specimens with 15% ZnO and 149 microns OPEFB fibers particle size. It is considered a promising candidate to be applied in automotive interior components.

Preliminary Study on the Effect of Bleaching Treatment on Cellulose Extracts from Oil Palm Empty Fruit Bunch

Oil palm empty fruit bunch fibre (OPEFB) is a waste from palm oil mill. It is rich in useful compound residues such as cellulose and carboxymethylcellulose. The increasing interest in OPEFB as a source of cellulose is due to its low cost, renewable and abundantly available, particularly in the Southeast Asia region. Cellulose extraction is affected by pre-treatment, especially during the bleaching process. Thus, this study aims to analyse the effect of bleaching period and treatment using NaClO2 on cellulose recovery from OPEFB. Batch process of bleaching was carried out in the ratio of 1:50 of fibres to sodium chlorite (NaClO2) solution of 0.7%. This was followed by analysis of cellulose morphological using FTIR and SEM analysis. The study found that bleaching duration affects cellulose recovery, with the highest yield of 54% found to be at 3 hours of bleaching duration. The bleaching duration was increased up to 6 hours, but found to yield less cellulose, which indicated that certain duration is suitable to provide a condition for higher cellulose yield.

Eco-Friendly Bioprocessing Oil Palm Empty Fruit Bunch (Opefb) Fibers Into Nanocrystalline Cellulose (Ncc) Using White-Rot Fungi (Tremetes Versicolor) and Cellulase Enzyme (Trichoderma Reesei)

The oil palm empty fruit bunch (OPEFB) as solid biomass of palm oil mill industry is available in abundance and has the potential to be utilized as the raw material of nanocrystalline cellulose (NCC). This research aims to investigate the effect of bioprocess treatment (bio-delignification, bio-bleaching, and enzymatic hydrolysis) on the nanocrystalline cellulose synthesized from OPEFB. The bio-delignification of OPEFB fiber was carried out using white-rot fungi (Tremetes versicolor and pre-bleaching pulp with xylanase. Trichoderma reesei, a cellulase enzyme type was used to hydrolyze the OPEFB fiber into nano-sized cellulose. The result exhibits that the cellulose content of OPEFB pulp using bio-delignification increased significantly compared to chemical treatment. Furthermore, the concentration of enzyme and hydrolysis time in the synthesis treatment affect reducing average particle size and increasing the crystallinity index while decreasing the yield of NCC produced. The synthesis process was under optimal processing conditions at 1% enzyme concentration and 3 days of hydrolysis time resulting in the NCC product with 155 nm of average particle size, 66.78% of crystallinity index, and a yield of 38.28%. The bioprocess technology applied in this study could improve the cellulose yield of OPEFB and enhance the quality parameters of NCC products such as particle size and crystallinity index.

Green Extraction Method of Cellulose Fibers from Oil Palm Empty Fruit Bunches

Oil palm empty fruit bunches (OPEFB) is one of the major biomass wastes produced from palm oil extraction process. Due to high cellulose content in OPEFB, the cellulose fibers in OPEFB can be extracted and utilized in versatile applications as a sustainable process technology development. Among multiple pre-treatment processes, chemical pre-treatment is most efficient for the removal of hemicellulose and lignin in extracting high purity cellulose from lignocellulosic biomass. With the undisputed importance of green technology for the progress of our society, it is vital to engage and leverage on green technology in chemical pre-treatment method for extracting cellulose from OPEFB. The objective of this study is to explore a green extraction method for cellulose from OPEFB using low concentration and eco-friendly chemicals. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy and field emission scanning electron microscope was used to detect the functional groups and to observe the surface morphology of OPEFB, de-waxed OPEFB fibers, delignified OPEFB fibers, acid hydrolyzed OPEFB fibers, and OPEFB extracted cellulose fibers at different stages in confirming the removal of wax, lignin, and hemicellulose from OPEFB extracted cellulose at the end of the extraction process. Crystallinity index increased from 28% for OPEFB to 72% for the OPEFB extracted cellulose, affirms the degradation of OPEFB’s amorphous structure and transforms into higher crystallinity structure. This work has successfully developed a green extraction method for OPEFB cellulose fibers as part of sustainable process technology which would promote the utilization of lignocellulosic agricultural waste from palm oil industry in various applications.