Oil Palm Biomass Waste Research Articles

Physicochemical properties of oil palm biomass waste fibres and its cellulose for engineering applications: a review

Physicochemical properties of oil palm biomass waste fibres and its cellulose for engineering applications: a review

Sustainable oil palm biomass waste utilization in Southeast Asia: Cascade recycling for mushroom growing, animal feedstock production, and composting animal excrement as fertilizer

Palm oil production has increased greatly due to its high stability and growing global population, causing the waste generated by the palm oil industry to grow rapidly. Research utilizing palm oil waste as a substrate for mushroom cultivation is currently ongoing in palm oil-producing countries. This research explores the possibility of utilizing oil palm waste-based mushroom cultivation medium as feedstock for goats and further extends the experiment to the use of excrement as compost material for B. campestris. In this research, we report that oil palm trunk (OPT) and fermented empty fruit bunches (FEFBs) as mushroom cultivation substrates produce yields of 98.3 and 97.2 g/bottle, respectively, while the conventional substrate produces 96.6 g/bottle, showing similar yields but with reduced cultivation time. The in vivo digestion experiments showed no significant differences in the total digestible nutrient (TDN) content between the control group and the group that used fermented total mixed ration (TMR) feed containing 10% palm biomass spent mushroom substrate (SMS). Although the plant height and fresh and dry weights of B. campestris were higher in the excrement-treated groups than in the control group, the germination rate was lower, although the difference was not significant. Based on these results, it was shown that palm biomass could be used in cascade recycling through edible mushroom substrates to livestock feed and compost, thereby adding value to palm biomass.

Comparative Analysis of the Feasibility of Oil PalmBiomass and Factory Tea Waste as Biosorbent for Copper Ions Removal from Wastewater

Numerous research have been conducted to produce low-cost biosorbents. Because of this, this study aims to analyse the feasibility of Oil Palm Biomass (OPB) and Factory Tea Waste (FTW) as the biosorbent for fixed-bed adsorption column system in removing copper ions from wastewater under two parameters: initial concentration and pH value. Both biosorbents were compared in their surface area, pore volume, width and diameter. They were then analysed regarding their isotherm behaviour. FTW is found to have a larger surface area, pore volume and pore width, while OPB has a larger pore diameter than FTW. Besides, OPB showed higher efficiency of copper ions removal at low initial concentrations (25 and 50 mg/L), but FTW was more effective for high initial concentrations (100, 150 and 200 mg/L). FTW was more favourable than OPB in acidic and alkaline conditions, but the copper ions removal efficiency was over 99% for both biosorbents when operating at pH 7 of solution. Furthermore, it was proven that both biosorbents showed a better fit to Langmuir Isotherm as the R2 for both showed the highest value. In conclusion, this study suggested that FTW provided better performance in copper ions removal than OPB.
 Keywords: copper ions removal; oil palm biomass; factory tea waste; fixed bed adsorption column

A review of the recent trend in the synthesis of carbon nanomaterials derived from oil palm by-product materials.

Grown only in humid tropical conditions, the palm tree provides high-quality oil essential for cooking and personal care or biofuel in the energy sector. After the refining process, this demand could cause numerous oil palm biomass waste management problems. However, the emergence of carbon nanomaterials or CNMs could be a great way to put this waste to a good cause. The composition of the palm waste can be used as a green precursor or starting materials for synthesizing CNMs. Hence, this review paper summarizes the recent progress for the CNMs production for the past 10 years. This review paper extensively discusses the method for processing CNMs, chemical vapor deposition, pyrolysis, and microwave by the current synthesis method. The parameters and conditions of the synthesis are also analyzed. The application of the CNMs from palm oil and future recommendations are also highlighted. Generally, this paper could be a handy guide in assisting the researchers in exploring economic yet simple procedures in synthesizing carbon-based nanostructured materials derived from palm oil that can fulfill the required applications.Graphical abstract

Utilization of oil palm empty fruit bunch cellulose fillers for biodegradable properties of carboxylated nitrile butadiene rubber latex films

The increase in latex gloves production in Malaysia has caused a landfill build-up due to its low biodegradable properties upon disposal. Meanwhile, oil palm biomass waste also shows a similar trend due to the global demand for palm oil. Therefore, the utilization of oil palm empty fruit bunch (OPEFB) cellulose fiber-filled carboxylated nitrile butadiene rubber (XNBR) latex is investigated. The OPEFB cellulose fillers are subjected to alkali and bleaching treatment to remove the wax, lignin, and hemicellulose. The treatment effectively removed most of the non-cellulosic components in OPEFB fibers. The XNBR latex was then compounded with different loading of OPEFB cellulose fillers (2phr, 4phr, 6phr, 8phr). The results obtained show as the OPEFB cellulose filler loading increases, the mechanical properties of latex films decrease due to the agglomeration of fillers that act as stress concentrations. After four weeks of soil burial, the biodegradable properties of XNBR latex films are enhanced with increasing filler loading as OPEFB fillers act as a source of nutrients for the biodegradation process by microorganisms. The balance in the mechanical and biodegradable properties is achieved at 4phr of OPEFB cellulose filler loading.

Synthesize a Sustainable Supply Chain of Biomass to Electricity via Mathematical Approach

The huge amount of biomass waste and palm oil mill effluent (POME) generated during oil extraction has prompted the need for a more sustainable framework in waste management. Since oil palm biomass waste is rich in lignocellulosic content, it can be potential to be converted into green energy such as bioelectricity via different pathway of processes such as the thermal conversion pathway and biochemical conversion pathway. This study proposes a mathematical approach to synthesise a sustainable supply chain of biomass to electricity by implementing the combined heat and power (CHP) system in palm oil mill. The optimum pathway of supply chain based on the technical, economical, and environmental aspects is generated. The purpose of this approach is to assists the industry players or owners to make decision in choosing the location of the pre-treatment technology, transportation method, location of power plant and configuration of CHP. A generic superstructure is first developed to achieve the objective. Then, a series of generic mathematical equations will then be formulated based on the pathways demonstrated in the generic superstructure. The mathematical equations involve general mass and energy balance, cost computation and carbon emission. The fuzzy optimisation concept will be adopted in this research to trade-off the conflicting objectives (maximize profit and minimize carbon footprint) in order to generate the optimum pathway. A palm oil-based bioelectricity supply chain case study in Selangor, Malaysia is solved to illustrate the presented approach. According to the optimised result in this case study, a total of 3,753.36 MW of bioelectricity can be generated per year. The result proved that the optimum pathway is feasible by comparing with the existing oil palm biomass-based power plant in Sarawak, where only 375 MW of electricity is generated by oil palm biomass. On the other hand, RM 7.25 million per year of net profit is estimated with a payback period of 2.81 years. Moreover, the CHP system is able to achieve 570 million kg CO2 per year.

The potential of biomass waste in Malaysian palm oil industry: A case study of Boustead Plantation Berhad

The oil palm industry is known as the primary producer of biomass in Malaysia. The massive production of oil palm biomass has resulted in a significant waste disposal problem. This study aims to assess the potential of waste derived from oil palm plantations and processing mills to be transformed into value-added products for various applications. The study was conducted on three oil palm estates managed by Boustead Rimba Nilai Berhad using data on the generation rates of fresh fruit bunches (FFB), crude palm oil (CPO), and oil palm biomass waste from 2018 to 2020. The availability of FFB, CPO, empty fruit bunches (EFB) and excess fibers, and palm oil mill effluents (POME) in 2030 was predicted using a forecasting approach, with trend analysis as the tool of choice. From 2018 to 2020, the output of FFB, EFB and excess fibers, as well as POME grew by 16%, 14%, 23%, and 14% respectively. Based on trend analysis, the projection of FFB, CPO, EFB and excess fibers, and POME outputs in 2030 is expected to be 80%, 56%, 92%, and 56% respectively, which are greater than the figures recorded in 2020. The state of the palm oil industry in Malaysia was described in this study and also highlighted the potential of oil palm biomass in various industries and as a source of green energy. Oil palm biomass can be commercialized in a wide range of value-added products.

Development of bio-pesticides from bio-oil of oil palm biomass waste (palm kernel shell) against Metisa plana Walker bagworm (Lepidoptera: Psychidae)

Despite the abundance of palm-based residues generated, the by-products from thermochemical processing such as bio-oil may create value-added products to the palm industry. The palm-based derived bio-oil contains high aromatic compounds, which are active ingredients in the bio-pesticides formulation. Therefore, this study investigated the formulation of the bio-pesticide from this bio-oil and determines their effect on insect-pest in oil palm such as Metisa plana walker bagworm. Prior the formulation, preliminary evaluation of the compatibility between bio-oil and surfactants such as Tween 20 and Tween 80 as the bio-pesticides ingredient were evaluated using the ternary phase diagram. The compatibility results showed the best formulation is at 20% of surfactant. Based on these conditions, the experiment was formulated using an active ingredient (AI) called azadirachtin extracted from neem seed. The formulated bio-pesticide was tested for its effectiveness towards the mortality of the bagworm. The results showed that the formulated bio-pesticide was able to repel 50% of the bagworm population, with a lethal concentration (LC50) of 22.1 g/mL showing a good indicator as an effective repellent. Hence, this study provided new knowledge for waste management towards zero waste strategy for a better environment and sustainability.

POTENSI LIMBAH PADAT PERKEBUNAN KELAPA SAWIT DI PROVINSI RIAU

Oil palm plantations produce solid biomass waste, namely replanting stems, midribs, empty fruit bunches (EFB), shells and fruit fibers. In 2018 the area of ​​oil palm plantations in Indonesia reached 14.3 million ha and the area of ​​oil palm plantations in the Riau Province until 2018 was 2.7 million hectares. The availability of oil palm plantation waste in Riau Province, such as waste production in gardens and palm oil mill waste (PKS) needs to be studied further, so that the amount of oil palm biomass waste will be illustrated. The purpose of this study was to calculate the potential for biomass waste from oil palm plantations in the form of replanting stems, midribs, EFB, shells and fruit fibers. The method used in this study is calculating waste based on mass balance and the data were analyzed using linear regression. The results of this study indicate an increasing trend in the amount of waste produced. The most potential amount of waste is oil palm empty bunches (TKKS) of 6 663 956 tonnes per year on average.

Glutardialdehyde modified starch from waste oil palm trunks as a binder for wood composite making

Formaldehyde fumes from wood composite products and oil palm biomass waste disposal are two environmental problems that need to be solved. In this work, starch from oil palm trunks was used to reduce formaldehyde usage in wood composite making. Starch was extracted using sodium metabisulphite before being chemically modified using glutardialdehyde solution. Wood composites were made using glutardialdehyde modified oil palm starch at three density levels, 0.60 g/cm3, 0.70 g/cm3 and 0.80 g/cm3. Similar wood composite with an additional 2% urea-formaldehyde resin was also made, with urea-formaldehyde wood composite was prepared as a comparison. Wood and binder mixtures were laid into a mould and hot-pressed at 165 °C for 20 min. Produced panels were characterized using FT-IR, XRD, TGA and DSC. Physical and mechanical tests were also done to evaluate the effect of binder on the strength of the wood composites. Wood panels were exposed to Schizophyllum commune, Pycnoporus sanguineus, Formitopsis palustris and Trametes versicolor to study their fungal resistance. Results showed that the addition of urea-formaldehyde helps to stabilize the wood composite when exposed to moisture. Wood composite made using glutardialdehyde modified oil palm starch showed excellent properties at a 0.80 g/cm3 density level where the MOR, MOE and internal bonding strength were recorded as 15.45 N/mm2, 3944.62 N/mm2 and 0.59 N/mm2, respectively. These were further increased by the addition of 2% urea-formaldehyde with the strength measured as 18.06 N/mm2, 3626.48 N/mm2 and 0.65 N/mm2, respectively. All of the wood composites passed the requirement of Japanese Industrial Standard, with the addition of urea-formaldehyde into the formulation further improving their moisture and fungal resistance. Glutardialdehyde modified oil palm starch has the potential to be used in wood composite making, based on the results obtained.

Measurements and analysis of crystal structures of activated carbon of empty fruit bunch from oil palm biomass waste

The purpose of this research is to measure and analyze the properties of activated carbon from biomass waste of palm oil empty fruit bunch by using x-ray diffraction (XRD). Biomass waste that has been clean and dried is carbonated at 400°C for 10 minutes to produce charcoal. Next, the charcoal is activated through a chemical process with the activating agent NaOH by soaking it for twelve hours. Activated carbon with 2N activated agent NaOH have the best properties because it has a largest surface area (27.07). The results of this research are useful for technological developments of activated carbon, and provide an economic added value to biomass waste.

An Overview of the Oil Palm Industry: Challenges and Some Emerging Opportunities for Nanotechnology Development

The increase in the world’s oil demand due to the rise of the global population urges more research into the production of sustainable vegetable oilseeds, among which palm oil is the most suitable candidate as it is the most efficient oilseed crop in the world. In an effort to drive the oil palm industry in the areas of food safety and security nanotechnology could offer a sustainable alternative. However, the utilization of nanotechnology in the oil palm industry is still limited. In this review, we aim to encourage the researchers to fully utilize nanotechnology as an alternative solution to tackle the challenges faced by the oil palm industry. Moreover, we also aim to highlight the opportunities for nanotechnology development in oil palm-based related research. The major points are as follows: (1) Nanosensing enables real-time monitoring of plantation status and crop progression, including soil, water and nutrient management, early pest/disease detection, and the spreading of pests/diseases. The use of nanosensing conveniently extends into advanced breeding topics, such as the development of disease-tolerant plants; (2) Nanotechnology could be the answer for the development of integrated management of pest and disease. Active agricultural ingredients can be entrapped or encapsulated into nanocarrier systems to improve their solubility, stability, enhance their efficient delivery to site-specific targets, with longer shelf life, and consequently improved efficacy; (3) Valuable nanomaterials can be isolated and generated from oil palm biomass waste. The utilization of oil palm biomass waste could overcome the issue of the massive production of waste in the oil palm industry and palm oil mills, where oil only accounts for 10% of the biomass, while 90% is comprised of the generated biowastes. (4) Palm oil can be utilized as a green alternative as a capping and stabilizing agent in the biosynthesis of metallic and non-metallic nanoparticles. In addition, nanoemulsion formulations using palm oil in drug delivery systems offer advantages such as low toxicity, enhance bioavailability and solubility of the drugs, apart from being inexpensive and environmentally friendly.

Bio-nanocomposite Films Reinforced with Various Types of Cellulose Nanocrystals Isolated from Oil Palm Biomass Waste

Studies of bio-nanocomposites using sustainable green materials from biomass waste are presently gain the attention worldwide. This study investigated the properties of bio-nanocomposite films from polyvinyl alcohol incorporated with 1%, 3%, and 5% via solvent casting method using various types of oil palm trunk cellulose nanocrystals isolated using various types of treatment. The produced bio-nanocomposite films were characterized for their mechanical behavior, morphological properties, thermal properties, and functionality groups and the effect of adding the oil palm trunk cellulose nanocrystals into the bio-nanocomposites films were then evaluated. The results showed that the mechanical properties and thermal stabilities of the bio-nanocomposite films increased with the incorporation of cellulose nanocrystals. The bio-nanocomposite films added with 3% cellulose nanocrystals with pre-hydrolysis treatment showed better mechanical and thermal properties and hence have a great potential to be utilized as a raw material or reinforcement in the packaging industries.

Valorization of palm oil agro-waste into cellulose biosorbents for highly effective textile effluent remediation

Over the past few decades, enormous interest has been manifested in utilizing biomass or agricultural wastes as a renewable resource for energy and advanced material production. Despite being the utmost abundant polymer on earth, nanocellulose has drawn tremendous attention due to its intrinsic reliability and sustainability. In this study, nanocrystalline cellulose (NCC) was isolated from oil palm biomass waste i.e. oil palm empty fruit bunch (EFB) via a multistep process to testify its high capacity as a biosorbent for textile effluent contaminant remediation. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) suggested that lignin, hemicellulose and other impurities had been effectively removed at different stages of preparation which was generally in agreement with ASTM chemical composition analysis. Thermogravimetric analysis with derivative thermograms (TGA-DTG) observed the extracted NCC to have the lowest weight loss throughout water evaporation region (25 °C - 100 °C), cellulose thermal degradation region (150 °C - 380 °C) and carbonic residue degradation (up to 600 °C) owing to its compact crystalline structure as evidenced from X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis. Batch adsorption were conducted to study effect of contact time (up to 200 min), adsorbent dosage (0.005–0.05 g), pH (2–10), agitation (50–250 rpm) and adsorbate concentration (50–300 mg/L) at 30 ± 2 °C. Field emission scanning electron microscope (FESEM) observed a flower-like structure of methylene blue (MB) coating upon adsorption, following a type II adsorption isotherm which suggest an adsorption occurred on mesoporous structure. The kinetic data agreed well with pseudo-second-order model which implied the current study a chemisorption process. As adsorption capacity was highly dependent on adsorbate concentration and adsorbent dosage, 50.91 mg/g was recorded for MB solution (50 mg/L) at adsorbent dosage as low as 0.066 mg/ml; a very encouraging outcome in the recent years of cellulosic research suggesting NCC a highly promising candidate for uprising functional cellulosic soft material fabrication.

Drying Shrinkage of Mortar Incorporating High Volume Oil Palm Biomass Waste

This paper studies the drying shrinkage of mortar incorporating oil palm biomass waste including Palm Oil Fuel Ash, Oil Palm Kernel Shell and Oil Palm Fibre. Nano size of palm oil fuel ash was used up to 80 % as cement replacement by weight. The ash has been treated to improve the physical and chemical properties of mortar. The mass ratio of sand to blended ashes was 3:1. The test was carried out using 25 × 25 × 160 mm prism for drying shrinkage tests and 70 × 70 ×70 mm for compressive strength test. The results show that the shrinkage value of biomass mortar is reduced by 31% compared with OPC mortar thus, showing better performance in restraining deformation of the mortar while the compressive strength increased by 24% compared with OPC mortar at later age. The study gives a better understanding of how the biomass waste affect on mortar compressive strength and drying shrinkage behaviour. Overall, the oil palm biomass waste can be used to produce a better performance mortar at later age in terms of compressive strength and drying shrinkage.

A policy framework and industry roadmap model for sustainable oil palm biomass electricity generation in Malaysia

The current global trends demonstrate the significant role of renewable energy in meeting the growing energy demand across all sectors to support national economic growth. In Malaysia, palm oil is one of the major agricultural export commodities with a total production of 17.7 million tonnes or 41% of the total world palm oil production in 2008. This research evaluates the sustainability of the grid-connected oil palm biomass renewable energy industry in Malaysia and proposes a policy framework and industry roadmap. The factors investigated include resource supply, the efficiency of waste to energy conversion technology used in the existing plants, and the attractiveness of the electricity interconnection scheme in encouraging exports of excess power from the participating mills to the main grid. A literature review and field survey were conducted to understand the barriers and possible enhancements to the current FiT system. The study concluded that harmonisation between upstream and downstream palm oil agricultural activities is essential for achieving the goal of making the oil palm biomass waste to energy industry sustainable. The policy framework and industrial roadmap models provide a distinctive enhancement to the FiT system besides indicating the way towards a sustainable biomass to the energy industry.

Reduction of CO2 emission by INCAM model in Malaysia biomass power plants during the year 2016

As the world’s second largest palm oil producer and exporter, Malaysia could capitalize on its oil palm biomass waste for power generation. The emission factors from this renewable energy source are far lower than that of fossil fuels. This study applies an integrated carbon accounting and mitigation (INCAM) model to calculate the amount of CO2 emissions from two biomass thermal power plants. The CO2 emissions released from biomass plants utilizing empty fruit bunch (EFB) and palm oil mill effluent (POME), as alternative fuels for powering steam and gas turbines, were determined using the INCAM model. Each section emitting CO2 in the power plant, known as the carbon accounting center (CAC), was measured for its carbon profile (CP) and carbon index (CI). The carbon performance indicator (CPI) included electricity, fuel and water consumption, solid waste and waste-water generation. The carbon emission index (CEI) and carbon emission profile (CEP), based on the total monthly carbon production, were determined across the CPI. Various innovative strategies resulted in a 20%–90% reduction of CO2 emissions. The implementation of reduction strategies significantly reduced the CO2 emission levels. Based on the model, utilization of EFB and POME in the facilities could significantly reduce the CO2 emissions and increase the potential for waste to energy initiatives.

Greenhouse gas assessment of palm oil mill biorefinery in Thailand from a life cycle perspective

The purpose of this study is to provide a comprehensive assessment of oil palm biomass waste utilization, with the goal of providing palm oil mill owners the best options for biomass applications in order to limit carbon emissions and optimize economic potential. As the third largest producer of palm oil in the world, Thailand is very entrenched in the industry and thus is an ideal country to implement waste utilization strategies. The biomass byproducts result from the processing of fresh fruit bunches (FFB) from the oil palm plant in order to extract the main commodity, crude palm oil (CPO). This paper assesses six major biomass byproducts that result from the processing of the oil palm plants: empty fruit bunches (EFB), palm kernel shells (PKS), mesocarp fiber, oil palm fronds, oil palm trunks, and palm oil mill effluent (POME). The associated net greenhouse gas emissions were calculated for each biomass’ potential utilization pathway. The results of the study found that 4 of the 6 biomass waste products have alternative utilization options that resulted in net negative carbon emissions. Regarding the utilization options that are recommended, EFB shows net emissions of −0.14 t CO2 equivalent, −5.33 for shells, −17.68 for fiber, and −0.594 for trunks. In addition, the assessment of the added value for each product guides decision making to ensure economic viability. This analysis is unique in that it encompasses various utilization pathways for each of the major oil palm waste products in one comprehensive study. By comparing the results of these pathways, an optimal use for every waste product is recommended to decrease the overall climate change impact of the mill.

Influence of Oil Palm Biomass Waste on Compressive Strength and Chloride Penetration of Mortar

The utilization of waste materials which are abundant and cheap, especially from clean resources, has become more pressing than ever. This study investigates the influence of Oil Palm Biomass waste including the Palm Oil Fuel Ash (POFA), Oil Palm Kernel Shell (OPKS) and Oil Palm Fibre (OPF) on the compressive strength and chloride penetration of mortar. The POFA was used as cement replacement up to 80% in nano size. The mass ratio of fine aggregates to binder was 3:1. Test specimens 70×70×70 mm cube were prepared and cured in water for 28 days. Ordinary Portland cement (OPC) mortar was also prepared as control specimen. The specimens were immersed in Sodium Chloride solution up to 18 months. The evaluation was done by visual observation, ultrasonic pulse velocity and mass change before and after exposure. The mortar was then split into two and sprayed with 0.1N Silver Nitrate solution to see the depth of penetration. The test results revealed that biomass mortar showed high resistance to chloride penetration as compared to OPC mortar due to the reduction of cement content in the mixture. Besides, the reactive silica from nano POFA produced more crystalline formation thus, reduced the porosity and crack within the biomass mortar.

An overview of the Oil Palm Empty Fruit Bunch (OPEFB) potential as reinforcing fibre in polymer composite for energy absorption applications

The oil palm empty fruit bunch (OPEFB) natural fibres were comprehensively reviewed to assess their potential as reinforcing materials in polymer composites for energy absorption during low-velocity impact. The typical oil palm wastes include trunks, fronds, kernel shells, and empty fruit bunches. This has a tendency to burden the industry players with disposal difficulties and escalates the operating cost. Thus, there are several initiatives have been employed to convert these wastes into value added products. The objective of this study is to review the potential of oil palm empty fruit bunch (OPEFB) as natural fibre polymer composite reinforcement to absorb the energy during low-velocity impact as another option for value added products. Initially, this paper reviewed the local oil palm waste issues. Previous research works on OPEFB polymer composite, and their mechanical characterization is appraised. Their potential for energy absorption in low-velocity impact application was also elaborated. The review suggests high potential applications of OPEFB as reinforcing materials in composite structures. Furthermore, it is wisely to utilize the oil palm biomass waste into a beneficial composite, hence, promotes the green environment.