Offspring Recognition Research Articles

Mine or my neighbours’ offspring: an experimental study on parental discrimination of offspring in a colonial seabird, the little auk Allealle

Individual recognition (IR) abilities may result from various ecological and naturally selected features of a species. Complex IR mechanisms should develop when the risk of misidentification of a chick is high. For colonial seabirds, the ability to identify their own brood is crucial to ensure parental fitness. Vocalizations seem to be a key component of most parent–offspring interactions, although few studies have assessed the interindividual differences in seabird chick calls and their potential usage in IR. The little auk (Allealle), which breeds in dense colonies, constitutes a perfect model for testing IR. In this study, we (1) examined chick calls at different stages of the nesting period, and (2) cross-fostered chicks to examine the rate of acceptance/nonacceptance of chicks by parents. We found significant interindividual differences in chick begging and fledging calls. Surprisingly, all cross-fostered chicks in our experiments were accepted by their foster parents, and male parents were as equally likely to accept cross-fostered chicks as females, even though the sexes would be expected to differ in offspring recognition due to different postfledging interactions with the chick. The revealed individuality of chick calls suggests the potential for chick vocal recognition in the studied species, but parent birds may disregard the individual characteristics enabling chick discrimination. This may take place as long as the chick is found in the nest because of the high likelihood that the chick present there is the focal one. However, IR during and after fledging requires further study. Studying the complexity of IR mechanisms is important for better understanding various avian social relationships and interactions.

Starting maternal exercise, unlike reducing the intensity of exercise during pregnancy, prevents memory deficits in female offspring subject to maternal deprivation

Maternal deprivation (MD) leads to long-lasting memory deficits. Conversely, maternal exercise could potently modify the offspring's cellular machinery. Here, we tested whether starting to run or reducing the intensity of running during pregnancy can protect prepubertal female offspring against MD-induced memory deficits. Female rats were divided into different groups submitted or not to MD: one started to run before pregnancy and reduced the intensity during the pregnancy (PGE); another started to run at the beginning of pregnancy (GE); and, finally, a control group (CT) was not submitted to exercise. All the rats but those of the CT ran on a treadmill until the delivery day (PND 0). Subsequently, MD was performed from PND 1 to 10. We assessed object recognition (OR) and spatial memory (SM) of female offspring after weaning (PND22, pre-pubertal stage). MD caused OR memory deficit; GE female offspring did not present this deficit, but PGE did. Both PGE and GE alone enhanced offspring spatial learning, but their combination with MD impaired it. MD promoted hippocampal lipid peroxidation increase, which both PGE and GE prevented. Total antioxidant capacity in the hippocampus was higher in both MD-exercised groups compared to all others. Although the antioxidant effects of exercise were similar in both MD exercise groups, we observed better results in the memory tests in the GE group than in the PGE group. These results suggest that starting to exercise during pregnancy is better than reducing the exercise intensity during pregnancy to prevent MD-induced memory deficits in female offspring.

Analgesia during Parturition in Domestic Animals: Perspectives and Controversies on Its Use.

Simple SummaryAlthough the pain associated with parturition performs the primary physiological function of maintaining frequent, strong myometrial contractions, its biological consequences can affect the health of both mother and fetus. Whilst analgesic therapy may be recommended to avoid pain, the evidence indicates that the mechanisms of some analgesic drugs can interfere with the biological process of labor. Opioids and non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs have been shown to indirectly inhibit myometrial contractions by decreasing oxytocin secretion, while local analgesics decrease the number of contractions, although its intensity increases, improving maternal performance. This article analyzes the physiological role of pain during labor and the use and efficacy of opioids, non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, and local analgesics in treatments to manage parturition in domestic mammals.This article analyzes the physiological role of pain during parturition in domestic animals, discusses the controversies surrounding the use of opioids, non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), and local analgesics as treatments during labor, and presents the advantages and disadvantages for mother and offspring. Labor is a potentially stressful and painful event, due to the contractions that promote expulsion of the fetus. During labor, neurotransmitters such as the prostaglandins contribute to the sensitization of oxytocin receptors in the myometrium and the activation of nociceptive fibers, thus supporting the physiological role of pain. Endogenously, the body secretes opioid peptides that modulate harmful stimuli and, at the same time, can inhibit oxytocin’s action in the myometrium. Treating pain during the different stages of parturition is an option that can help prevent such consequences as tachycardia, changes in breathing patterns, and respiratory acidosis, all of which can harm the wellbeing of offspring. However, studies have found that some analgesics can promote myometrial contractility, increase expulsion time, affect fetal circulation, and alter mother–offspring recognition due to hypnotic effects. Other data, however, indicate that reducing the number of uterine contractions with analgesics increases their potency, thus improving maternal performance. Managing pain during labor requires understanding the tocolytic properties of analgesics and their advantages in preventing the consequences of pain.

The Onset of Maternal Behavior in Sheep and Goats: Endocrine, Sensory, Neural, and Experiential Mechanisms.

In sheep and goats, the onset of maternal behavior at parturition is characterized by a first phase called maternal responsiveness during which the mother is attracted to any newborn. In a second phase, called maternal selectivity, the mother establishes a selective bond with her young so that she only accepts it at suckling. After a description of the behavioral expression of both phases, this chapter reviews the physiological, sensory, and neural mechanisms involved. These two behavioral processes are synchronized with parturition by the vaginocervical stimulation induced by the expulsion of the newborn. Olfactory cues provided by the neonate are involved in maternal responsiveness and selectivity. Oxytocin supported by estrogens is the key factor for maternal responsiveness. The neural network involved in maternal responsiveness is mainly hypothalamic and is different from the circuitry involved in selectivity, which mainly concerns olfactory processing regions. Visual and auditory cues are necessary for offspring recognition at a distance. This multisensory recognition suggests that mothers form a mental image of their young. Maternal experience renders mothers more responsive to maternally relevant physiology and to young-related sensory inputs.

Unconditional adoption rules out the need for parent–offspring recognition in a single‐brooded colonial seabird

AbstractParent–offspring recognition (POR) is fundamental in colonial birds when the potential intermingling of chicks is higher due to the large number and proximity of nests. In species with isolated nests, where chick presence in the nest is strong contextual evidence of kinship, there might be circumstances when the parent might doubt the identity of the chick, but not enough to reject it. Olfactory‐based recognition of conspecifics and nest sites in birds has gained strong evidence suggesting a potential role of olfaction in POR. Despite that, there are no studies testing it. We used Scopoli's shearwater (Calonectris diomedea) as model colonial single‐brooded species with a developed olfactory sense, usually breeding in well‐spaced nests with low probability of chicks mixing. We tested the parent's ability to selectively respond to their own chick as opposed to a simpler rule of feeding any chick found in the nest by means of chick‐fostering experiments. We designed two cross‐fostering experiments using chicks of different ages to test whether the ability of parents to recognize a related chick develops over time, possibly after acquiring an own distinctive odour. Finally, we also manipulated nests’ odour to disentangle the confounding effect of nest site recognition from POR when parents return at night. All experimental chicks were adopted by parents as the weight and bill growth of cross‐fostered chicks did not differ significantly from the control group. We recorded a small difference in weight when foster chicks were inside an odour‐manipulated nest; although we did not record weight loss in experimental chicks, only a steeper increase in weight was observed in control chicks. In conclusion, adoption in Scopoli's shearwater seems to follow the rule "if the young is in my nest, accept it" proposed by Beecher (1991) for species with spatially separated nests and low chick mobility.

Offspring and adult chemosensory recognition by an amphisbaenian reptile may allow maintaining familiar links in the fossorial environment.

Kin recognition is a phenomenon with an important function in maintaining cohesive social groups in animals. Several studies have examined parent–offspring recognition in species with direct parental care. Few studies have, however, explored parent–offspring recognition in animals that, at best, only show apparent indirect parental care, such as some reptiles. In this study, we investigated reciprocal parent–offspring recognition in the fossorial amphisbaenian Trogonophis wiegmanni, a viviparous species that shows potential stable ‘family groups’ in the form of parent-offspring long-term associations. We examined whether adult males and females could discriminate via chemical cues between familiar juveniles which associate with them within their family groups, and are potentially their offspring, to that of unfamiliar juveniles, and whether juveniles could discriminate between familiar adult males and females of their family group (probably their parents) and unfamiliar unrelated adults. We measured tongue flick behavior to study chemosensory responses to the scent of conspecifics. We found that adult female amphisbaenians, but not males, could discriminate between scents of familiar and unfamiliar juveniles. Juvenile amphisbaenians did not discriminate between familiar and unfamiliar adult females, but recognize familiar from unfamiliar males. We discuss our results of parent–offspring recognition according to its potential social function in an ecological fossorial context where visibility is limited and chemosensory kin recognition may contribute to the establishment of stable family groups.

Egg sac recognition and fostering in the wolf spider Pardosa milvina (araneae: lycosidae) and its effects on spiderling survival

AbstractMany animals provide parental care to increase the success of offspring. Parental behaviors can be costly, and should only be directed toward related young. Offspring recognition and differential effort are ways that animals ensure that care is directed toward related individuals. Pardosa milvina is a small wolf spider that provides parental care for their young, carrying first their egg sac and later their spiderlings. This species is known to pick up abandoned egg sacs. We conducted a study to determine whether female P. milvina differentiated between her own egg sac and a conspecific's egg sac and whether there was a benefit to spiderlings in being raised by their biological mother, and whether age, when removed from the mother, influenced the outcome. In one experiment, we removed the egg sac from a female and gave her a choice of items to reattach: their own egg sac, another spider's egg sac, or a plastic bead. Females were more likely to pick up their own egg sac than another spider's. In another experiment, we removed a female spider's egg sac either 1 day or 7 days after the eggs were produced and gave them either their own egg sac or another spider's egg sac to care for. We measured hatching success and offspring survival. Spiders manipulated after 7 days were more likely to be abandoned as eggs, whether cared for by their biological mother, and reached adulthood less often. However, cross‐fostering had no effect on spiderling success whether the transfer occurred after 1 day. Our data showed that P. milvina can recognize their own egg sac, but there was no evidence of differential parental care provided to the biological offspring.

Nestling odour modulates behavioural response in male, but not in female zebra finches

Studies investigating parent offspring recognition in birds led to the conclusion that offspring recognition is absent at the early nestling stage. Especially male songbirds were often assumed to be unable to discriminate between own and foreign offspring. However, olfactory offspring recognition in birds has not been taken into account as yet, probably because particularly songbirds have for a long time been assumed anosmic. This study aimed to test whether offspring might be recognised via smell. We presented zebra finch (Taeniopygia guttata) parents either the odour of their own or that of foreign nestlings and investigated whether the odour presentation resulted in a change in the number of head saccades, i.e. the rapid horizontal turning of the head, with which birds scan their environment and which can be used as a proxy of arousal. Our experiment indicates that male zebra finches, in contrast to females, differentiate between their own and foreign offspring based on odour cues, as indicated by a significant differences in the change of head saccadic movements between males receiving the own chick odour and males receiving the odour of a foreign chick. Thus, it provides behavioural evidence for olfactory offspring recognition in male zebra finches and also the existence of appropriate phenotypic odour cues of the offspring. The question why females do not show any sign of behavioural response remains open, but it might be likely that females use other signatures for offspring recognition.

GPER1 Signaling Initiates Migration of Female V-SVZ-Derived Cells.

SummaryIn the rodent ventricular-subventricular zone (V-SVZ) neurons are generated throughout life. They migrate along the rostral migratory stream (RMS) into the olfactory bulb before their final differentiation into interneurons and integration into local circuits. Estrogen receptors (ERs) are steroid hormone receptors with important functions in neurogenesis and synaptic plasticity. In this study, we show that the ER GPER1 is expressed in subsets of cells within the V-SVZ of female animals and provide evidence for a potential local estrogen source from aromatase-positive astrocytes surrounding the RMS. Blocking of GPER1 in Matrigel cultures of female animals significantly impairs migration of V-SVZ-derived cells. This outgrowth is accompanied by regulation of phosphorylation of the actin-binding protein cofilin by GPER1 signaling including an involvement of the p21-Ras pathway. Our results point to a prominent role of GPER1 in the initiation of neuronal migration from the V-SVZ to the olfactory bulb.

Parental dependence on the nest's spatial cues in offspring recognition decreases with nestling growth in the azure-winged magpie.

In altricial birds, to address which cues are used by parents to recognize their offspring, and when they switch between cues during reproduction, it has not been well determined. In this study, we address this question in a Tibetan population of the azure-winged magpie Cyanopica cyanus, by examining the dependence of parents on a nest’s spatial position in offspring recognition. During the egg and nestling phases, azure-winged magpie nests were translocated to new positions across various distances from their original site, and parental responses to the translocated nests were investigated. Our findings show that a nest’s spatial position is not connected with the survival of its young, but might be used as a cue in parental offspring recognition. When nests are translocated to a new position within a certain distance, parents could recognize their nests and returned to resume their parenting behaviors. Parental dependence on the nest’s spatial position in offspring recognition is higher during the egg phase than during the nestling phase, and it decreases with the growth of nestlings. After nestlings reach a certain age, the nest’ s spatial position was no longer used by parents as the single cue for offspring recognition. These findings suggest that azure-winged magpies switch their cues in offspring recognition during the different stages of reproduction. After parent–offspring communication has been established, the offspring’s phenotypic traits may become a more reliable cue than the nest’s spatial position in offspring recognition.

Spots and manes: the curious case of foster care between two competing felids

AbstractAdoption of unrelated young can have detrimental consequences to the caregivers’ fitness in the form of costs emanating from maladaptive altruism. Owing to such costs, complete adoptions and allo‐nursing are relatively rare in the animal world, more so between species that compete with one another. Lions and leopards compete through both exploitative and interference mechanisms, resulting in profound aggression and suppression at mutual encounters. Through intensive monitoring, we provide a detailed and prolonged account of a complete adoption of a leopard cub by a free‐ranging Asiatic lioness. We briefly review existing literature on foster care in the animal world and suggest that maternal instincts and inexperience, coupled with behavioral and physical resemblance between lion and leopard cubs, could have acted as proximate cues in initiating such an unprecedented association. Furthermore, the unique sociobiology of Asiatic lions wherein the sexes live separately in small groups likely favored the duration of this interaction (~45 d). We also discuss and speculate about broader perspectives of offspring recognition in the animal world and ask whether the study of such important yet rare associations has implications for our understanding of parental care.

Mechanisms of Convergent Egg Provisioning in Poison Frogs.

Parental provisioning of offspring with physiological products (nursing) occurs in many animals, yet little is known about the neuroendocrine basis of nursing in non-mammalian species. Within amphibians, maternal provisioning has evolved multiple times, with mothers of some species feeding unfertilized eggs to their developing offspring until tadpoles complete metamorphosis [1-3]. We conducted field studies in Ecuador and Madagascar to ask whether convergence at the behavioral level provides similar benefits to offspring and relies on shared neural mechanisms in dendrobatid and mantellid poison frogs. At an ecological level, we found that nursing allows poison frogs to provide chemical defenses to their tadpoles in both species. At the neural level, nursing was associated with increased activity in the lateral septum and preoptic area, demonstrating recruitment of shared brain regions in the convergent evolution of nursing within frogs and across vertebrates [4]. In contrast, only mantellids showed increased oxytocin neuron activity akin to that in nursing mammals [5], suggesting evolutionary versatility in molecular mechanisms. Our findings demonstrate that maternal provisioning provides similar potential benefits to offspring and relies on similar brain regions in poison frog species with convergently evolved toxicity and maternal care. VIDEO ABSTRACT.

Chemical fingerprints suggest direct familiarisation rather than phenotype matching during olfactory recognition in Australian sea lions (Neophoca cinerea)

Olfaction is one of the most commonly used senses for communication among animals and is of particular importance to mother-offspring recognition in mammals. The use of smell in offspring recognition has been well studied, however, we often lack information about the underlying mechanistic basis for olfactory recognition. Using gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC–MS), we examine chemical profiles of two different colonies of Australian sea lions (Neophoca cinerea) and assess similarity of chemical fingerprints in mother-pup pairs. This analysis allows us to examine whether a chemical base for phenotype matching exists in this species. Our results showed no GC-detectible mother-offspring similarity in the overall chemical fingerprints, suggesting that direct familiarisation is a more likely mechanism used by Australian sea lion mothers for recognition of their young. Our analysis also demonstrates that colony differences are encoded within chemical fingerprints and appear to be highly influenced by environmental compounds. The study improves our understanding of how Australian sea lion females use odours for selective offspring recognition and the potential importance of environmentally acquired chemical compounds in the overall odour bouquet used in mother-pup interactions.

The brood parasite's guide to inclusive fitness theory.

Hamilton's theory of inclusive fitness provides a framework for understanding the evolution of social behaviour between kin, including parental and alloparental care. Brood parasitism is a reproductive tactic in which parasites exploit the care of other individuals of the same species (conspecific parasitism) or different species (interspecific parasitism) to rear their brood. Here, drawing from examples in birds and social insects, we identify two insights into brood parasitism that stem from inclusive fitness theory. First, the kin structure within nests, or between neighbouring nests, can create a niche space favouring the evolution of conspecific parasitism. For example, low average relatedness within social insect nests can increase selection for reproductive cheats. Likewise, high average relatedness between adjacent nests of some birds can increase a female's tolerance of parasitism by her neighbour. Second, intrabrood conflict will be high in parasitized broods, from the perspective of both parasite and host young, relative to unparasitized broods. We also discuss offspring recognition by hosts as an example of discrimination in a kin-selected social behaviour. We conclude that the inclusive fitness framework is instructive for understanding aspects of brood parasite and host evolution. In turn, brood parasites present some unique opportunities to test the predictions of inclusive fitness theory. This article is part of the theme issue 'The coevolutionary biology of brood parasitism: from mechanism to pattern'.

Multimodal mother–offspring recognition: the relative importance of sensory cues in a colonial mammal

Animals often employ multiple sensory modalities for communication and recognition; however, the combination of sensory cues used by individuals in given contexts will vary. Although mother–offspring recognition has been widely investigated and is known to be a multimodal process in gregarious mammal species, there is a dearth of information about the interactions between various sensory cues. Here we show how acoustic, olfactory and visual cues are used in a synergistic way in Australian sea lion, Neophoca cinerea, mother–offspring recognition. We interpret the results using a cost–benefit perspective to disentangle the evolutionary pressures on each component of this communication system. Although olfactory cues can convey individual identity information it was their presence, not their congruency, that prompted female sniffs. We found that calls needed to be from the female's own pup for the identification process to be successful, with the information encoded in acoustic cues overriding that of olfactory cues. Despite each sensory cue accurately conveying identity information when presented in isolation, in a multimodal setting their importance, function or role may change and seems to be driven by the costs and benefits of obtaining information resulting from the constraints imposed by the active space of cues.

Innate development of acoustic signals for host parent–offspring recognition in the brood‐parasitic Screaming CowbirdMolothrus rufoaxillaris

Young birds communicate their need to parents through complex begging displays that include visual and acoustic cues. Nestlings of interspecific brood parasites must ‘tune’ into these communication channels to secure parental care from their hosts. Various studies show that parasitic nestlings can effectively manipulate host parental behaviour through their begging calls, but how these manipulative acoustic signals develop in growing parasites remains poorly understood. We investigated the influence of social experience on begging call development in a host‐specialist brood parasite, the Screaming CowbirdMolothrus rufoaxillaris. Screaming Cowbird nestlings look and sound similar to those of the primary host, the Greyish BaywingAgelaioides badius. This resemblance is likely to be adaptive because Baywings discriminate against fledglings unlike their own and provision nests at higher rates in response to Baywing‐like begging calls than to non‐mimetic begging calls. By means of cross‐fostering and playback experiments, we tested whether the acoustic cues that elicit recognition by Baywings develop innately in Screaming Cowbird nestlings or are acquired through social experience with host parents or nest mates. Our results suggest that begging call structure was partially modulated by experience because Baywing‐reared Screaming Cowbird and host nestlings were acoustically more similar as age increased, whereas acoustic similarity between cross‐fostered and Baywing‐reared Screaming Cowbird nestlings decreased from 4–5 to 8–10 days of age. Cross‐fostered Screaming Cowbirds developed begging calls of lower minimum frequency and broader bandwidth than those of Baywing‐reared Screaming Cowbirds by the age of 8–10 days. Despite the observed differences in begging call structure, however, adult Baywings responded similarly to begging calls of 8‐ to 10‐day‐old cross‐fostered and Baywing‐reared Screaming Cowbirds, suggesting that these were functionally equivalent from the host's perspective. These findings support the idea that, although rearing environment can influence certain begging call parameters, the acoustic cues that serve for offspring recognition by Baywings develop in young Screaming Cowbirds independently of social experience.

Maternal experience and adult neurogenesis in mammals: Implications for maternal care, cognition, and mental health.

The transition to motherhood encompasses physiological and behavioral adaptations essential for the initiation and maintenance of offspring care and feeding and includes widespread changes throughout the brain. The growth of new neurons occurs across the lifespan in distinct regions of mammalian brains and changes dynamically across reproductive events in female mammals. The subventricular zone (SVZ) and dentate gyrus (DG) of the hippocampus undergo high rates of neurogenesis in adulthood and are sensitive to hormonal fluctuations. Pregnancy and the postpartum period are associated with increased cell proliferation in the SVZ and interneuron survival in the olfactory bulb. In mice, peripartum prolactin signaling mediates SVZ neurogenesis and is important for enhanced olfactory recognition of offspring and maternal care. In contrast, cell proliferation and immature neuron survival decrease in the DG during the postpartum period. High baseline glucocorticoid concentrations suppress hippocampal neurogenesis, potentially representing an energetic trade-off accompanying a reduced need for spatial navigation early postpartum. In women, hippocampal volume decline during pregnancy and partial recovery during the postpartum period could contribute to the risk of psychiatric illness. New evidence indicates that the dorsal raphe nucleus (DR) is an additional site for adult neurogenesis sensitive to reproductive experience and offspring contact. In this review, we discuss the initial and lasting impact of maternal experience on adult neurogenesis. Because neurogenesis has been implicated in a variety of psychiatric and neurodegenerative illnesses, understanding how reproductive experience alters new neuron production in maternal mammals has far-reaching implications for women's health and wellness across the lifespan.

The role of visual cues in mother-pup reunions in a colonially breeding mammal.

Parental care is an important factor influencing offspring survival and adult reproductive success in many vertebrates. Parent-offspring recognition ensures care is only directed to filial young, avoiding the costs of misallocated resource transfer. It is essential in colonial mammal species, such as otariids (fur seals and sea lions), in which repeated mother-offspring separations increase the risk of misdirecting maternal effort. Identification of otariid pups by mothers is known to be multi-modal, yet the role of visual cues in this process remains uncertain. We used three-dimensional visual models to investigate the importance of visual cues in maternal recognition of pups in Australian sea lions (Neophoca cinerea). We showed that the colour pattern of pup pelage in the absence of any other sensory cues served to attract the attention of females and prompt investigation. Furthermore, females were capable of accurately distinguishing between models imitating the age-class of their own pup and those resembling older or younger age-classes. Our results suggest that visual cues facilitate age-class discrimination of pups by females and so are likely to play an important role in mother-pup reunions and recognition in otariid species.

Casamentos mistos: entre a escravidão e a liberdade Franca-São Paulo/Brasil, século XIX

Esse artigo busca ampliar o estudo sobre os casamentos mistos, temática ainda pouco explorada no âmbito da historiografia brasileira. A presente análise focalizou os casamentos entre pessoas de estratos sociais distintos: livres e escravos ou livres e descendentes de escravos(as) africanos(as). Por meio do cruzamento nominativo das atas de casamento da paróquia Nossa Senhora da Conceição de Franca, São Paulo (1806-1887), da Lista Nominativa de habitantes de 1836 e de inventários post mortem, constatamos que a tendência de formar famílias mistas correspondia mais às mulheres livres do que aos seus pares homens; legitimar o matrimônio mostrou-se uma estratégia para garantir o status social, a reprodução do modelo de família preconizado pela Igreja e pelo Estado e o respeito da elite local, o reconhecimento da prole e a transmissão de bens. As famílias mistas nos permitem entender mais a fundo o dinâmico e complexo processo de formação e composição familiar, a mestiçagem e as relações íntimas estabelecidas entre pessoas livres, egressas da escravidão e cativas.

Can but don't: olfactory discrimination between own and alien offspring in the domestic cat.

Mammalian maternal care usually comes at a large energetic cost. To maximize their fitness, mothers should preferentially care for their own offspring. However, the majority of studies of mother-offspring recognition have focused on herd- or colony-living species and there is little information on maternal discrimination in more solitary-living species. Olfaction has been found to play a major role in mother-offspring recognition across various taxa. Therefore, our aim was to study this in a species evolved from a solitary-living ancestor, the domestic cat. We asked whether cat mothers distinguish between their own and alien offspring when providing maternal care, and whether cat mothers use olfactory cues in the offspring discrimination process. Results of Experiment 1 showed that cat mothers do not discriminate between own and alien young when retrieving them to the nest. They treated own and alien young similarly with respect to latency and order of retrieval. However, the results of Experiments 2 and 3, where we used an olfactory habituation-discrimination technique, showed that mothers were able to distinguish between the odours of their own and alien kittens. We discuss what ecological and/or behavioural factors might influence a mother's decision when faced with discriminating between own and alien young, and why mothers might not discriminate between them when they are able to do so. Our findings support the view that maternal care alone should not be used as a measure of offspring recognition, and equal maternal care of own and alien young should not be immediately interpreted as an inability to discriminate between them.