Offending Pathways Research Articles

“We need help too”: establishing client and practitioner demand for responsive programs for women sentenced for child sexual abuse in Australia

There is growing recognition internationally of the prevalence and impact of female-perpetrated child sexual abuse (CSA). Prior research has indicated gender-specific offending pathways and motivations for women involved in this crime, bringing into question whether there is a need for tailored offense-­specific interventions and whether these would increase treatment efficacy for this population. Using data collected across three Australian jurisdictions, this study used a mixed-methods design to explore the perceptions of correctional practitioners (n = 44) and justice-involved women currently serving a sentence for CSA (n = 18) on accessibility and demand for offense-specific correctional programs, and perceived benefits of such programs. Results indicate substantial support from practitioners (93.18%) and justice-involved women (100%) for the development of offense-specific interventions, despite there currently being few opportunities to access such interventions within correctional settings in Australia. A range of perceived benefits of such programs were indicated by both sample populations, namely, that targeted support would likely reduce the risk of recidivism by promoting greater self-awareness and improvement, peer support, and future-focused planning. Findings highlight a significant practice gap in correctional treatment and underscore the current demand for offense-specific interventions to improve outcomes for women who perpetrate CSA.

An analysis of the characteristics and motives of the UK homicides involving acts of dismemberment

PurposeThe purpose of this study was to contribute to the evidence base by analysing the characteristics and motives of homicides involving acts of dismemberment.Design/methodology/approachThe current study explored offence, victim and offender characteristics and the motives for 71 homicides involving dismemberment using open source data. All cases included in this study were investigated in the UK between 1970 and 2016. A non-metric multi-dimensional scaling procedure smallest space analysis (SSA) was used to explore the characteristics and motives derived from a content analysis of homicide data sourced online.FindingsA distinction between expressive and instrumental characteristics was observable with three thematic regions identified: instrumental – defensive, instrumental – predatory and expressive – affective. Support was found for previously identified motives for criminal dismemberment, with defensive being the most common motive identified in 63% (N = 45) of the cases.Originality/valueThe implications of the findings are discussed with suggestions made for future research. The findings have practical implications for assisting law enforcement and forensic and clinical practitioners in further understanding offenders who engage in homicidal dismemberment. This includes aiding homicide investigations, in terms of supporting investigators to draw upon offence, victim and offender characteristics and motives for homicides involving acts of dismemberment. Differentiation between cases of dismemberment and understanding of motives also has practical implications for the development of interventions and treatment pathways for homicide offenders who dismember victims.

Pathways and prevention for indecent images of children offending: A qualitative study

The access of indecent images of children (IIOC) is an increasing societal problem; no longer resolvable by law enforcement alone. This research aimed to explore the views of individuals who accessed IIOC, regarding their offending pathways and what they believed could have prevented their offending or encouraged desistance. The qualitative analysis highlights a lack of deterrents for online offending, and the importance of education around legality, consequences, accountability and access to confidential help to prevent online offending. Recommendations regarding IIOC prevention strategies are considered in light of the findings.

Exploring trajectories of offender harm: An alternative approach to understanding offending pathways over the life-course

PurposeContemporary life-course research predominantly classifies offenders according to patterns of offending volume over time, however it is not clear how useful these classifications are for identifying the most harmful offenders. The current study uses a novel methodology to explore trajectories of offending harm over the early life course, drawing on longitudinal offending data for an Australian birth cohort. MethodsCrime harm values from the modified Western Australian Crime Harm Index were applied to major offence types evident among offenders in the cohort (N = 27,079), from ages 10 to 30 years. Group-based trajectory modelling (GBTM) was applied to both to offences and harm values to determine discernible trajectories of offending and harm. ResultsGBTM analyses indicated four distinct harm trajectories in the cohort: early adult peak high harm (1.6%); adult escalating harm (4.4%); declining moderate harm (5.9%); and low harm (88.2%). Low volume offenders comprised the largest number of offenders in the higher harm groups, while among chronic offender groups the profile of harm was very mixed. ConclusionsThis study finds that the traditional offender classifications do not effectively identify high-harm offenders. Findings are discussed with respect to life-course conceptualisations of offender pathways and challenges in identifying high harm offenders.

Cybercrime on the menu? Examining cafeteria-style offending among financially motivated cybercriminals

Criminologists have frequently debated whether offenders are specialists, in that they consistently perform either one offense or similar offenses, or versatile by performing any crime based on opportunities and situational provocations. Such foundational research has yet to be developed regarding cybercrimes, or offenses enabled by computer technology and the Internet. This study address this issue using a sample of 37 offender networks. The results show variations in the offending behaviors of those involved in cybercrime. Almost half of the offender networks in this sample appeared to be cybercrime specialists, in that they only performed certain forms of cybercrime. The other half performed various types of crimes on and offline. The relative equity in specialization relative to versatility, particularly in both on and offline activities, suggests that there may be limited value in treating cybercriminals as a distinct offender group. Furthermore, this study calls to question what factors influence an offender's pathway into cybercrime, whether as a specialized or versatile offender. The actors involved in cybercrime networks, whether as specialists or generalists, were enmeshed into broader online offender networks who may have helped recognize and act on opportunities to engage in phishing, malware, and other economic offenses.

Change in Juvenile Offending Versatility Predicted by Individual, Familial, and Environmental Risks

Developmental and life-course criminology elucidate the developmental course and change of antisociality over time, considering that longitudinal trajectories differ. Specific relations between risks and different antisociality outcomes are emphasized. We assume that adolescents have different longitudinal trajectories considering the change of offending over time and that risks contribute variably to offending pathways. The current study is based on a German research project in which adolescents (N = 577) were interviewed in two German cities. Based on self-reported crime data, we utilized the slope values of offending versatility (OV) over time as outcome values in regression mixture models capturing the trends for participants over age and exhibiting two components of offending adolescents. We explored the contribution of different risks to OV, defining specific risk patterns: Acceptance of violence and peer delinquency have significant negative effects on the emergence of OV within the group of adolescents with decreasing OV. Acceptance of violence has a significant negative effect, and corporal punishment has a significant positive effect on the emergence of OV within the group of adolescents with increasing or rather stable OV. The results underline the relevance of the violence-related risk factor corporal punishment for the emergence of OV within the last-mentioned group.

Sexual Offending Pathways and Chat Conversations in an Online Environment.

People from all over the world pay for live streaming video images of minors, also called webcam child sex tourism (WCST). Although there is an increase in research about online sexual offending, relatively few studies have investigated the approaches used by people who have committed WCST offenses (PWCST). In addition, these studies describe these approaches as active-orientated without mentioning an avoidant pathway. The aim of the study was to investigate whether PWCST use similar pathways as the four offending pathways identified by Ward and Hudson. Using qualitative thematic analysis, 195 cases of online chat conversations between PWCST and operators posing as a minor were analyzed. The Ward and Hudson pathways model was partially replicable. Evidence was found for an approach and avoidant pathway. The data also suggest three other sub-pathways and a mixed pathway. Most PWCST in this study used an approach pathway to immediately approach minors for sex, which provides important insight into the diverse nature of sexual grooming.

Exploring offender manager’s experiences of psychologically informed consultation on relationships with service users within the offender personality disorder pathway

Purpose The Yorkshire and Humber Personality Disorder Partnership (YHPDP) provides psychological consultation and formulation to offender managers (OMs) within the National Probation Service as part of the offender personality disorder (OPD) pathway. The pathway highlights the importance of formulation-led case management to develop pathways for offenders with personality difficulties at high risk of causing serious harm to others. This study aims to ask what is the experience of psychological consultation/formulation on the relationship between a sample of service users (SUs) and their OMs. Design/methodology/approach Semi-structured interviews were undertaken with five OMs who had engaged in at least three consultations with YHPDP psychologists/psychotherapists within the OPD pathway. Qualitative methods were used to analyse the data, specifically interpretative phenomenological analysis, which is useful when dealing with complexity, process or novelty. Findings OMs experienced the consultation/formulation process to be containing and reflective. They found complex, emotionally demanding clients who have offended and have personality disorder traits could be responded to differently as a result of this process. From an OM perspective, this improved the relationship between themselves and their SUs and supported risk management. These conclusions must be tentative, as they are drawn from a small-scale qualitative study, but provides the basis for further research. Originality/value Although there is increasing research into the outcomes of the OPD pathway, little has been done regarding the experience of the relationship between OMs and SUs. This research takes a qualitative perspective to explore this area.

Understanding the Relationships between Trauma and Criminogenic Risk Using the Risk-Need-Responsivity Model

ABSTRACT Despite the high rates of trauma histories in offenders and the link between trauma and subsequent criminal behavior, the mechanisms underlying the relationship between trauma and criminogenic risk factors have not received adequate attention. Trauma-informed care is increasingly a priority in forensic organizations, although individual trauma work is rarely a focus for prison-based intervention. Research conducted with female offenders has consistently found higher rates of complex trauma histories in comparison to male offenders. Current correctional models are disproportionately informed by studies of male offenders despite findings of disparities between offending pathways based on gender and histories of complex trauma. A review of the literature regarding the relationship between trauma and offending behavior using the Risk-Need-Responsivity (RNR) model of criminogenic needs and the relationship between trauma and offending in females in comparison to males is considered. Findings have both pragmatic and theoretical significance for addressing the gap in exploring etiological mechanisms linking the RNR criminogenic risk factors to crime. Implications and recommendations for correctional policy and model development addressing trauma will be discussed.

Offender trajectories, health and hospital admissions: relationships and risk factors in the longitudinal Cambridge Study in Delinquent Development.

ObjectivesResearch suggests that antisocial lifestyles constitute significant health risks. However, there are marked individual differences in the stability of antisocial behaviour. These different offending pathways may bear differential risks for adult health.DesignInjury and illness data were collected prospectively in the longitudinal Cambridge Study in Delinquent Development.SettingWorking-class inner-city area of South London.ParticipantsParticipants included the 411 men from the Cambridge Study in Delinquent Development, with interview data collected at ages 18, 32 and 48 years for each individual.Main outcome measuresOrganic illness, hospitalisation and injuries.ResultsBy age 48, adjusted odds ratios showed that the incidence of organic illness was higher among Life-Course-Persistent, Late-Onset offenders and offenders in general. Based on adjusted odds ratios at age 32, the incidence of hospitalisations was higher for Late-Onset offenders. Adjusted odds ratios at age 48 also showed that the incidence of hospitalisations was higher for all three offender types and offenders in general. Our results also provide evidence that offenders were more likely to suffer injuries than non-offenders.ConclusionsThe findings of this study imply that preventing individuals from offending is likely to have substantial benefits for health.

An analysis of high-risk offending pathways for young females in custody

Adolescent females who have engaged in severe and/or chronic offending are an understudied population internationally. The literature on female offending pathways has indeed advanced, and there is a better understanding of how female offending behaviours manifest and how correctional agencies should be responding. However, much of the existing research has focused on the risk factors and retrospective biographical narratives of adult female offenders. The present study focused on thematically exploring the self-reported life experiences and offending pathways of 36 detained adolescent females. Findings identified multiple themes including disconnection from education, early care-giver disruption/family separation, personal and family mental health problems, poly-substance abuse, anti-social peers, victimisation and anger problems. The study identifies that early family disruption is an important factor that may contribute to later offending behaviour and other negative life events. Prevention efforts should begin with the family when it comes to high-risk young females.

Making Sense of Heterogeneity in the Influence of Childhood Abuse, Mental Health, and Drug Use on Women’s Offending Pathways

Building from the developmental and life course literature and the feminist pathways literature, we aim to detail when and how exposure to abuse in childhood shapes female offending trajectories. Using data from 470 female offenders in Australia, our analyses assess whether internalizing symptoms and drug use help explain the link between early abuse and later offending among females. We then examine whether these links are most acute for females who onset early and evidence chronic involvement in offending. In support of the feminist pathways model, we find evidence for a pathway from early abuse to internalizing symptoms to drug use and then offending. In addition, and in line with the life course literature, we also find important differences in how these risks unfold across women, depending particularly on age of onset and offending chronicity. We reflect on the implications of our findings for theory and intervention with respect to female offending.

Maternal Identities and Narratives of Motherhood: A Qualitative Exploration of Women’s Pathways Into and Out of Offending

Existing research in criminology often focuses on changes in offending behaviors over time. Yet, less is known about the role of gender in women’s offending and little consideration is directed toward the integration of gender and parenthood in understanding offending trajectories. This article examines how and when offending and desisting pathways are shaped by motherhood. Interviews were conducted with 37 mothers in New York City with histories of offending behaviors. The data demonstrate how motherhood and maternal identities held more significance in some social circumstances, contributing to offending pathways and presenting a variety of challenges in some women’s desistance pathways.

The impact of longitudinal offending trajectories on mental health: Lifetime consequences and intergenerational transfer

ObjectivesThis paper set out to contribute to the literature by linking research into offending pathways with the study of longitudinal effects and intergenerational transmission of mental health. MethodsData was used from two generations of the Cambridge Study in Delinquent Development, a longitudinal study of 411 men from London and their children who were followed since 1961–62. ResultsFindings from this study (1) indicate that symptoms of depression and anxiety were highest among those who commenced offending in adulthood and (2) demonstrated familial continuity of mental health: poor offspring mental health was related to father's criminality, but not to their offender group. ConclusionsA thorough understanding of the heterogeneity of offenders is essential for policy and practice. It is suggested that future research further examines individuals who only commence offending in adulthood, since they have been shown to not only face a variety of adverse outcomes themselves, but are also likely to have children with distinct patterns of internalizing problems.

Development of a Case Formulation Model for Individuals Who Have Viewed, Distributed, and/or Shared Child Sexual Exploitation Material.

Increases in the number of arrests of individuals who download or distribute Child Sexual Exploitation Material (CSEM) have highlighted a need to further understand the offending pathways of this offender group. This article describes the development of an aetiological model specific to CSEM offending. Individuals who had viewed, distributed, and/or shared CSEM (n = 20) were interviewed regarding their life and sexual history, relationships, substance use, offending details, and circumstances leading to their CSEM offending, resulting in seven superordinate themes: Developmental Context, Individual Propensities (risk-related and risk-protective) and Psychological Vulnerabilities, Personal Circumstances, Permission-Giving Thoughts, Internet Environment and Behaviour, Evaluation of Consequences for the Individual, and Desistance. These themes were combined into a case formulation tool specific for CSEM offending behaviour, with the aim of providing systematic guidance for assessment and treatment providers.

Exploring the longitudinal offending pathways of child sexual abuse victims: A preliminary analysis using latent variable modeling

Very little research has been conducted to show the way in which criminal behavior unfolds over the life-course in children who have been sexually abused, and whether it differs from the ‘age-crime’ patterns consistently documented in the criminology literature. This study investigated the temporal pathways of criminal offending between the ages of 10–25 years among medically confirmed cases of child sexual abuse (CSA), and considered whether abuse variables, offense variables, and the presence of other adverse outcomes, were associated with heterogeneity in offending pathways among CSA survivors. This study utilized data gathered as part of a large-scale study involving the linkage of forensic examinations on 2759 cases of medically ascertained CSA between 1964 and 1995, to criminal justice and public psychiatric databases 13–44 years following abuse, together with a matched comparison sample of 2677 individuals. We used the subsample of 283 offending individuals (191 victims; 92 comparisons) for whom complete offending data were available. We compared the aggregate age-crime curves for CSA victims and comparisons, and applied longitudinal latent class analysis to identify distinct subgroups of offending pathways between ages 10–25 years within the abuse sample. Four latent pathways emerged among sexually abused offenders, labeled: Early-Onset/High-Risk/Adolescence-Limited; Intermediate-Onset/Low-Risk/Adolescence-Limited; Late-Onset/Low-Risk/Slow-Declining; and Early-Onset/High-Risk/Persistent offenders. Age at abuse, the nature and frequency of offending, and mental health problems, were associated with the offending pathway followed by CSA victims. Consistent with criminological literature, findings indicate considerable heterogeneity in the longitudinal offending patterns of offenders exposed to CSA. Implications for clinical practice and directions for research are highlighted.

A retrospective study describing the characteristics of one Mental Health Trust's admissions under sections 47 and 48 of the Mental Health Act 1983.

Sections 47 and 48 of the Mental Health Act 1983 allow prisoners to be transferred from prison to an appropriate health-care setting in order to be treated. There is an awareness that delays exist when transferring prisoners to hospital. However, literature regarding the delay in returning these patients from hospital is limited. The admissions from prison to a Psychiatric Intensive Care Unit (PICU) in South West London were compared to non-offenders on the PICU in order to compare the average length of stay for both groups and the time taken for the discharge from PICU once felt clinically appropriate. The study also compared demographic profiles, reason for admissions, psychiatric diagnosis and index offences. Over six years, there were 18 admissions from prison to a PICU. The control group comprised 37 non-offenders admitted to the same PICU. On average the prison group took longer to be deemed clinically ready for discharge and, even once clinically ready, then took longer to be discharged. The average length of stay in PICU was 77.83 days for prisoners, and 16.46 days for non-offenders. All 55 admissions were between 1 January 2008 and 31 December 2014. The offender pathway and the difference in the length of stay between prisoners and non-offenders in a PICU warrants further exploration. Possible recommendations to reduce the length of stay of prisoners include improved information sharing between prisons and hospital, and clearer guidelines regarding the level of security required.

Sex Offending and the Transition From Adolescence to Adulthood: A Cross-Lagged Analysis of General Offending and Sexual Assault in College Males.

The purpose of this study was to determine the direction of the general offending-sexual assault relationship in young males transitioning from late adolescence to early adulthood. It was predicted that the path leading from general offending to sexual assault would be significant and the path leading from sexual assault to general offending would be non-significant. This hypothesis was tested in a convenience sample of 851 male college students using three waves of data. Four cross-lagged correlations were compared after controlling for race, relationship status, blame attributions, and precursors for each predicted variable. Consistent with the hypothesis, both general offending leading to sexual assault pathways were statistically significant and both sexual assault leading to general offending pathways were not non-significant. Supplemental analyses revealed that more than half the specific non-sexual offenses contributing to the general offending score were capable of predicting general offending, indicating that the non-significant sexual assault pathways were not simply a function of the more limited size or scope of the sexual assault measure. The fact that general offending predicted sexual assault but not vice versa suggests that adult-onset sexual assault may be an extension of prior non-sexual offending.

Life Course Offending Pathways Across Gender and Race/Ethnicity

This paper aims to refine our understanding of life course offending patterns across gender and race/ethnicity and to advance work in this area by examining how gender and race/ethnicity interact to influence life course offending patterns. We use criminal justice system data to construct a longitudinal offending cohort that includes all individuals born in 1983/1984 with at least one court finalization for a criminal offense in the state of Queensland between the ages of 10 and 25 years. The data include 41,280 offenders (25.6 % female; 8.9 % Indigenous Australian) responsible for 209,872 offenses (M = 5.08, SD = 12.31). Coupling these data with state-level census data for those born in 1983/1984 (N = 129,782), we estimate cohort offending rates overall and disaggregated by gender and race/ethnicity both independently and jointly. Focusing on the offenders, we use semiparametric group-based modeling to identify the number and longitudinal distributions of offending trajectories within the cohort and compare how subgroups defined by gender, Indigenous status, and their combination sort into these trajectories. Most of the birth cohort has little to no contact with the criminal justice system through age 25. However, patterns are not uniform across gender or race/ethnicity, with males and Indigenous Australians most likely to fit the serious and chronic offending trajectories. Gender and race/ethnicity also interact to influence offending patterns with non-Indigenous females significantly more likely than any other group to avoid system contact, while Indigenous males have comparatively exaggerated rates of contact. Moreover, Indigenous females offend in ways more similar to non-Indigenous males than females and, in some instances, evidence even more serious offending. Developmental and life course models should highlight not just the operant developmental dynamics across key life stages or the relevant age-graded risk and protective factors at play, but also how gender and race/ethnicity condition these processes both independently and jointly.

"I Couldn't Do It to a Kid Knowing What It Did to Me": The Narratives of Male Sexual Abuse Victims' Resiliency to Sexually Offending.

Research has shown that child sexual abuse victims are overrepresented among sexual abuse offenders, leading to the sexually abused-sexual abuser hypothesis. However, a large proportion of child sexual abuse victims do not go on to sexually offend, and such individuals are labeled as resilient victims. Surprisingly few studies have looked at why some male victims of sexual abuse do not go on to offend. In-depth qualitative interviews were conducted with 47 resilient men focusing on their beliefs as to why they had not gone on to sexually abuse others. Results revealed four themes for why the victims did not offend: empathy, morals, lack of sexual desire, or a combination of the previous three. In regard to the process of developing their resiliency, some participants claimed they made a conscious decision, whereas others reported the decision was an unconscious one. The various factors that were reported as contributing to the conscious or unconscious decision (becoming aware of sexual abuse, admitting the experience had happened to them, empathy, social support, and lack of sexual desire to abuse) are discussed, along with the four themes, and the implication of these results for prevention. Finally, conclusions are drawn that the victim-offender pathway is far from inevitable as most participants stated their reason for not offending was directly related to their own experience of sexual abuse victimisation.