Offender Demographics Research Articles

Deconstructing a form of hybrid investment fraud: Examining ‘pig butchering’ in the United States

Cyber-enabled fraud has transformed, becoming more complex and making it harder for targets and law enforcement to detect its occurrence. This study aims to recontextualize a major manifestation of this transformation, a crime called hybrid investment fraud, colloquially known as pig butchering. Hybrid investment fraud describes a cyber-enabled fraud whereby criminals gain the trust of victims by forming connections and relationships, and then exploit this trust by using a series of confidence building and coercive measures designed to encourage victims to continuously invest in securities or commodities until they become unable or unwilling to continue to make payments or the offenders become unreachable. This study further aims to address the existing knowledge gap by focusing on understudied elements of this fraud, such victim and offender characteristics and the ways hybrid investment fraud is perpetrated. To achieve this, we conducted an in-depth analysis of more than 1,300 news articles and court documents between January 1, 2018, and November 1, 2023, to identify 59 cases of hybrid investment fraud targeting victims in the United States. This article both situates hybrid investment fraud within the broader fraud literature and conducts a comprehensive of analysis of hybrid investment fraud cases to identify the types of hybrid investment fraud committed, their impact, victim and offender demographics, and offenders’ tactics, tools, and methods of operation. The findings from this study can inform criminal justice practices and future research of this fraud.

Have offender demographics changed since the COVID-19 pandemic? Evidence from money mules in South Korea

This study aims to investigate how the demographic characteristics of offenders have changed after the COVID-19 pandemic. Specifically, our research focuses on shifts in the nationality, gender distribution, and age profiles of money mules during this period. We utilized arrest reports data provided by the Seoul Metropolitan Police Agency in South Korea, including all 1407 individuals arrested for money mules in Seoul from February 1, 2018, to December 31, 2021. Our findings, derived from interrupted time series analyses, show a decrease in the percentage of non-Korean money mules, an increase in the proportion of female individuals engaged in money mule activities, and a rise in the average age of money mules after the outbreak of the pandemic. These insights hold significant implications for developing targeted policy interventions to mitigate potential threats associated with money mule activities.

A Comparative Analysis of Knife and Firearm Homicides in the United States.

In the United States of America firearms are the most common weapons used to commit homicide. This has led the public, academics, media, and policy makers to largely neglect other means of homicide. The second most common weapon used in the commission of a homicide in the USA are knives. On average more than 1,500 people are murdered with a knife each year in the USA. Little attention in the USA is focused on knife violence. However, the same is not true across the globe. After reviewing an international selection of literature, the current study aims to analyze both the victims and offenders of knife homicide in the USA by comparing them to the offenders and victims of firearm homicide. This was accomplished by analyzing data from the Supplementary Homicide Reports from 2014 to 2016. Comparisons between firearm and knife homicides included victim and offender demographics, as well as the relationship between the victim and offender. Bivariate and multivariate analysis are used to show that the victims and offenders of knife homicides are a significantly different group from the victims and offenders of firearm homicide. In the USA victims and offenders of knife violence are more likely to be female, less likely to be minorities, and are significantly older than firearm victims and offenders. The victim and offender in the case of a knife homicide are also significantly more likely to be closely related to one another. Unlike many other countries, in the USA the problem of knife violence appears much more similar to domestic violence than the typical street crime involving firearms. Because of this, knife homicides should not be approached with the same theoretical framework as firearm homicide. Additionally, the policies needed to effectively counter this problem will be different from those intended to deter firearm homicide.

Understanding Risk of Suicide among perpetrators who view child sexual abuse material (CSAM)

Attempts to address the threat of harm posed by perpetrators of child sexual abuse (CSA) have rightly increased in recent years, with well-known efforts such as operation NOTARISE resulting in 750 arrests; however, the cost of such operations is also high. Operation NOTARISE resulted in 24 suicides; the estimated economic and social cost of which has been estimated to be £34.8 million.[1] Perpetrators who view child sexual abuse materials (CSAM) are not only at higher risk of suicide than the general population, individuals diagnosed with a mental health disorder, and perpetrators of other violent and sexual crimes,[2-5] but they also appear to be at higher risk of suicide than perpetrators of CSA who engage directly in sexual acts with a child .[6-8] An in-depth understanding of the experiences of CSAM offenders is missing in the literature, but is required to understand how to mitigate the risk of suicide amongst this high risk group. This qualitative study investigates the experiences of CSAM perpetrators from the perspectives of law enforcement officers (n = 16), CSAM perpetrators themselves (n = 5), and help-line operators who have provided support to CSAM perpetrators through the Lucy Faithfull Foundation “Stop it now!” helpline (n = 6). Analysis was conducted separately for each dataset and in accordance with guidelines set out by Braun and Clark .[9] The focus of this paper is the six over-arching themes that were common across all datasets: (i) offender demographics; (ii) psychological impact of arrest; (iii) coping with the investigation; (iv) cognitive distortion; (v) shame and stigma; and (vi) professional support. Findings are discussed in the context of the challenges faced by law enforcement and healthcare professions when providing support to this high risk group, and eight key recommendations are made to reduce the risk of suicide.

Findings from a preliminary review of child sacrifice cases in Kyampisi Uganda

ABSTRACT The authors reported on a review of child sacrifice cases in Kyampisi, Uganda. A constant comparative review method was used to examine a small convenient sample of cases. Analysis included using memo writing and low-inference coding to capture primary themes with input from an FBI behavioral analyst and a follow-up interview with the executive director of Kyampisi Childcare Ministries (KCM). The authors identified broad categories informed by input from the FBI behavioral analyst. The categories included child and family demographics, crime details, offender demographics, and recovery efforts. The research uncovered Child sacrifice is real and needs to be stopped. Emerging patterns in the cases were apparent. Child sacrifice should be considered different from random criminal acts. Efforts to seek justice were time consuming and the outcomes were usually discouraging. Child sacrifice practices should be considered different from random criminal acts. Multi-systemic efforts are the only possible way of reducing the number of child sacrifice cases in the region.

Life or death: what factors impact the decision?

Death penalty cases are among the more controversial and costly. There are numerous factors that may influence a prosecutor’s decision to seek the death penalty in a capital murder case. This study considers offender demographics, district attorney characteristics, victim characteristics, local political and criminal climate, and county financial condition to gain a more holistic understanding of prosecutorial decisions surrounding the death penalty. Using multilevel logistic regression models, Texas death penalty cases from 2007 to 2018 (N = 436) were analyzed. Findings suggest a reduction in prosecutor decisions to seek the death penalty over time, and that prosecutors may be more likely to seek the death penalty if a higher percentage of victims killed were White.

Turning 75: Why Age Matters for Victims of Assaultive Violence Reported to Police

Americans are able to age in more active and engaged ways than previous generations. These changes bring many positive opportunities, but also might affect the risk of criminal victimization for older adults. In considering these risks, an initial question is how best to identify older adults. One common default is to use age 65 and older, which suggests older individuals are part of a homogenous group. The Census Bureau’s multiple category approach illustrates another option, which captures variations as Americans age. This study explores the risk and characteristics of non-fatal assaultive violence using a multiple-category age definition and uses police data from the Federal Bureau of Investigation’s 2016 National Incident-Based Reporting System (NIBRS). These data were collected from 34 states and cover a range of crimes including aggravated and simple assaults. NIBRS data are well suited for this study as they collect details about the crime including victim and offender demographics and incident details such as victim-offender relationship, weapons, location and arrest. Preliminary results indicate that 34,689 assault victims were adults over the age of 65. Using a generic measure of older adult (age 65 and above) masks important variations in these assaults. Distinct patterns are observed between those aged 65 to 74, 75 to 84 and 85 and above. Within these age categories, differences also occur across racial and sex groups. The patterns observed can provide more nuanced guidance to challenge traditional assumptions about older adult crime victims and inform policies tailored to support these victims.

Reported Sexual-offense Incidents in the United States: Arrest Disparities between Women and Men.

This study examined the effect of an offender's sex (male/female) on whether sexual-offense incidents reported to law enforcement culminated in an arrest. Two hypotheses, chivalry and evil woman, are relied upon and suggest that the probability of arrest differs for women and men, yet in differing directions. The chivalry hypothesis suggests women are treated more leniently than men and, therefore, less likely to be arrested. The evil woman hypothesis, however, suggests the opposite: Women are treated more harshly than men and, therefore, more likely to be arrested. Seven years of National Incident-based Reporting System [NIBRS] data were relied upon (National Archive of Criminal Justice Data, 2010-2016, National Incident-based Reporting System: Extract Files); all of the reported sexual-offense incidents committed by women were included, along with a matched sample of reported sexual-offense incidents committed by men, culminating in a sample of 22,744. Overall, women were 42% significantly less likely than men to be arrested when controlling for other known offense, offender, and victim characteristics. The odds for women to be arrested increased, however, when specific offender demographics, offense characteristics, and victim characteristics were taken into account. The implications of these findings are discussed in regard to their application of the chivalry and evil woman hypotheses.

When Suspects Resist Arrest: Prevalence, Correlates, and Implications for Front-Line Policing

Police use of force is one of the most critical issues in policing with research consistently finding that the best predictor of force is suspect resistance. Yet, resistance itself is relatively rarely researched. This study drew from the Drug Use Monitoring in Australian (DUMA) program – Australia’s longest running cross-sectional survey of offenders. Data was analyzed using multivariate and multi-level logistic regression to identify factors that predict suspect resistance in terms of whether the suspect was charged with resisting arrest or not. Results showed that while suspect resistance was relatively rare, it was more common under specific situations. Factors relating to offender demographics, crime, temporal/situational, and policing district all contributed to whether suspects were charged with resisting arrest. Moreover, the results showed that the policing region was the strongest predictor of whether a detainee was charged with suspect resistance. These findings highlight the complex and multifaceted nature of police-citizen encounters.

Offence characteristics: a comparison of lone, duo, and 3+ perpetrator robbery offences

ABSTRACT The current study investigated characteristics of robbery offences with a focus on lone versus multiple perpetrator crimes. The main aim was to outline differences between lone, duo, and 3+ perpetrator crimes. Police recorded crime data from West Midlands Police relating to 1574 personal robberies (including attempts) committed in Birmingham city centre (UK) were used in the analysis. Robbery offences were compared on victim and offender demographics and offence characteristics. The findings showed significant differences between the three group sizes (lone, duo, 3+ offenders) in victim and offender age; approach styles; victim control variables; weapon use; alcohol and violence; injuries; and carjacking. The findings of the current research can feed into developing policing strategies which take into account differences in group size.

The Penetrative Offence in Section 4 of the Sexual Offences Act 2003: Offenders, Victims, and Outcomes After Detection

Abstract Extensive research exists in relation to the Sexual Offences Act 2003, in particular, rape and assault by penetration, the two most serious offences involving non-consensual sexual penetration of the victim. However, the other penetrative offence, causing a person to engage in (penetrative) sexual activity without consent, found in section 4 of the Act, has, to date, been excluded from national statistics and research. This article analyses novel data relating to the section 4 penetrative offence, collected using freedom of information requests from 37 police forces in England and Wales over a 13-year period. The data explore victim and offender demographics and outcomes after detection. The findings challenge understandings around who the victims and perpetrators of penetrative sexual offences are.

The co-offender as counterfactual: a quasi-experimental within-partnership approach to the examination of the relationship between race and arrest

Estimate the relationship between race and arrest within co-offending partnerships using a quasi-experimental framework. More specifically, this study argues that when two offenders commit an offense together (i.e., co-offend), the characteristics of the offense and victim are the same and can be removed as possible confounding variables. In this way, co-offenders can serve as counterfactual observations to one another, allowing for quasi-experimental analysis of the effects of race on arrest likelihood. The current study restructures data from the National Incident-Based Reporting System (NIBRS) into a multi-level format wherein level-1 information on offender demographics and arrest are nested within a level-2 file containing information on co-offending partnerships, offense characteristics, and victim characteristics. By restricting the data to co-offending partnerships and examining within-partnership differences in arrest, the analysis examines racial differences in arrest given that two offenders commit the same offense together against the exact same victim. While a traditional logistic regression approach suggests that black offenders are less likely than white offenders to be arrested (OR = 0.749), the quasi-experimental analysis examining within-partnership differences suggests the opposite: black offenders are more likely than their white co-offending partners to be arrested for an offense (OR = 1.031). These results have two implications. First, traditional regression analyses of the relationship between race and arrest may be subject to significant selection and omitted variable bias. Second, there is potential racial disparity in co-offender arrest: black co-offenders are more likely than their white partners to be arrested for the same violent offense.

Animal maltreatment from ancient times to the 21st century: Foundation for a call to action now

Animal maltreatment from ancient times to the 21st century: Foundation for a call to action now

Individual and situational influences on injurious assaults against the police

PurposeViolence against the police represents an ongoing and serious problem in the USA. In 2014, over 48,000 law enforcement officers assaulted while on duty. Although over one in four of these resulted in injury, little is known about the conditions under which injury is likely to occur. The purpose of this paper is to provide an assessment of the individual and situational factors that predict injurious assaults against law enforcement.Design/methodology/approachUsing logistic regression, the current study analyzes data from the 2012 National Incident-Based Reporting System (NIBRS) on all assaults against the police (n=8,987) in order to understand, within a routine activities theoretical framework, how individual-level characteristics (i.e. officer and offender characteristics) and situational influences (i.e. assignment type, activity type, and location) predict the likelihood that an assault will result in injury.FindingsOverall, findings suggest support for a routine activities theory of violence against the police. Initiating an arrest, one-officer vehicle type, and incidents occurring on highways/roads were all more likely to result in injurious assaults against the police. Other predictors of injury include officer and offender demographics as well as the time the incident took place.Research limitations/implicationsThis research was unable to control for some factors that may influence the likelihood of injury such as wearing body armor. Additionally, NIBRS data are not nationally representative, which limits the generalizability of the findings.Originality/valueThis is one of the first papers to use national data to examine the individual and situational factors that predict injurious assaults against law enforcement.

A Comparison of Intimate Partner Violence Strangulation Between Same-Sex and Different-Sex Couples.

Strangulation is a common and dangerous form of intimate partner violence (IPV). Nonfatal strangulation is a risk factor for homicide; can lead to severe, long-term physical and mental health sequelae; and can be an effective strategy of coercion and control. To date, research has not examined strangulation within same-sex couples. The objective of this cross-sectional, observational research is to identify whether and to what extent the detection of strangulation and coercive control differs between same-sex and different-sex couples in police reports of IPV. Data (n = 2,207) were obtained from a single police department in the southwest United States (2011-2013). Bivariate analyses examined differences in victim and offender demographics, victim injury, violence, and coercive controlling behaviors between same-sex (male-male and female-female) and different-sex couples (female victim-male offender). Logistic regression was used to examine associations between strangulation, victim and offender demographics, coercive controlling behaviors, and couple configuration. Strangulation was reported significantly more often in different-sex (9.8%) than in female and male same-sex couple cases (5.2% and 5.3%, respectively; p < .05). Injury, however, was reported more frequently in same-sex than in different-sex couples (p < .05). Couple configuration (p < .05), coercive control (p < .05), and injury (p < .05) significantly predict strangulation. Findings suggest that nonfatal strangulation occurs within at least a minority of same-sex couples; it is possible that underdetection by law enforcement makes it appear less common than it actually is. Regardless of couple configuration, timely identification of strangulation and subsequent referral to medical and social service providers is essential for preventing repeated strangulation, life-threatening injury, and the long-term health effects of strangulation.

Jail duration, demographic characteristics of offenders, and acquired suicide capability

The study sought to predict the acquired capability for suicide from length of sentence and socio-demographic characteristics of offenders in a Nigerian prison population. Participants were 139 inmates (mean age = 33.67, SD = 9.24years; mean length of stay = 6.25 years, SD = 5.02years), males (95.7%), They were predominantly incarcerated for armed robbery (39.6%), burglary/stealing (18.0%), homicide (9.4%), and rape (8.6%) in Abeokuta prisons, Nigeria. The participants completed the Acquired Capability for Suicide Scale, and socio-demographic characteristic questionnaire. Descriptive statistics, t-test for independence, and multiple regression analysis were computed to predict suicidal capability among prison population from their socio-demographics. Results revealed that demographic characteristics of type of offence, family membership, and type of family were co-joint predictors of suicide capability among prison inmates. Shorter duration of stay (short termers), being incarcerated for aggravated assault, drug related offences, and stealing were risk factors for acquired suicide capability. The role of family membership and family type were negligible as suicidal risk factors. Correctional services should attend to offender demographics in their suicide prevention support for offenders.

Examining Differences in Bias Homicide Across Victim Groups

Little is known about how situations of bias homicide might vary dependent upon who is targeted. Drawing from doing difference theory, we comparatively examine several event-level variables for bias homicide involving three different target groups. Data on bias homicide occurring in the United States come from the U.S. Extremist Crime Database (ECDB). Our findings reveal significant differences across bias victim groups, specifically regarding weapon use, location of incidents, victim–offender relationships, and victim and offender demographics. The results of this study have important implications for the theoretical and methodological advancement of empirical research on bias crime and for law enforcement responsible for identifying and investigating bias crimes.

Specialty courts: Who's in and are they working?

The effectiveness of specialty courts has been well established in the literature; however, previous studies have not taken into account referral biases that may exist based on offenders' race, socioeconomic status (SES), attorney status, and so forth. The current study hypothesized that (a) Participants who are racially diverse, of lower SES, and represented by privately retained attorneys would be referred less frequently to specialty courts, and (b) Participants in specialty courts would evidence reductions in missed court appointments and failed urinary analyses (UAs) compared with peers not enrolled in specialty courts. Participants (N = 274) were probationers who were involved in 1 of 3 specialty court programs (i.e., drug, driving while intoxicated [DWI], or reentry courts) or a matched sample of probationers not in specialty court services. Results indicated that, in general and with few exceptions, specialty courts did not have differential referral rates based on offender demographics including race, ethnicity, SES, or attorney status (court appointed vs. privately retained). Results examining the effectiveness of the specialty courts were mixed. Participants in the in-prison treatment program reentry court missed a greater proportion of scheduled court meetings than did their matched sample counterparts; however, the other specialty court programs did not significantly differ from their matched-sample counterparts. Participants in the DWI court had a significantly smaller proportion of UA failures to total UAs than did their matched sample peers; however, the drug court and reentry court programs did not significantly differ from their matched sample counterparts. Implications, future directions, and limitations are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record

Geographic and Social Movement of Sex Offender Fugitives

The Adam Walsh Child Protection and Safety Act (AWA) established the U.S. Marshals Service (USMS) as the nation’s lead agency in the pursuit of sex offenders who violate a sex offender registry and cross state, tribal, or national borders. This study examines the flight behavior of 195 AWA violators investigated by the USMS during 2011 and focuses on the strategic choices fugitives made including the distance offenders traveled, whether they lived alone or with others at capture, and whether they were arrested in a community they were familiar with (e.g., a city they had lived in before). A number of personal, criminal, geographic, and social indicators were taken from law enforcement and public records in an effort to model patterns across these three strategic choices. The data showed that 37% of AWA violators fled to a familiar area, 65% lived with friends or family at capture, and 50% traveled more than 370 miles (with 35% residing in an adjacent state to the last known address). Analyses also showed that these three outcomes varied as a function of offender demographics, geographic history, social networks, and criminal history. Implications for policy and research are discussed.

Offender engagement in group programs and associations with offender characteristics and treatment factors: A review

Abstract The aim of this review is to establish how offender engagement within group programs has been conceptualized, defined or assessed, and the factors that are associated with it. Existing models describe determinants of engagement and the process of behavioral change, but there is little in the way of theory explaining the process of engagement in treatment and change. Forty-seven studies were reviewed and revealed inconsistent definitions and assessments of engagement as well as inconsistent use of measures which contributes to confusion about the scope of engagement and reflects the lack of theory. Attendance, completion or dropout rates were frequently relied upon, but may not reliably infer engagement. Participation and out of session behaviors in conjunction with one another, reflecting a series of active responses to treatment, may more reliably reflect engagement in treatment and change. A model for offender engagement is presented which might help clarify the role of engagement variables. Offender demographics appeared to be of little value in predicting engagement, with only a small number of psychosocial factors (hostility, impulsivity) predicting low levels of engagement and most others (anger, anxiety) having little influence. Treatment factors (therapeutic relationship, program objectives) were more consistently related to engagement, but are under-researched.