Off-farm Livelihood Research Articles

Agro-Pastoral Youth Participation in Livelihood Activities, Development Programs and Interventions in East and West Hararghe Zones of Oromia Regional State, Ethiopia

This study was conducted to identify the status and determinants of male and female youth participation in selected livelihood activities, development programs and interventions in agro-pastoral areas of Oromia regional state, Ethiopia. A cross-sectional research design and mixed methods research approach were employed. A multi-stage random sampling strategy was followed to select four agro-pastoral Woredas (A ‘Woreda’ is an administrative unit equivalent to a District), 12 Kebeles (A ‘Kebele’ is the smallest administrative unit in Ethiopia. A Woreda/District consists of several Kebeles) and 398 youth aged 15–29 years for a face-to-face interview. Data were analysed through descriptive and inferential statistics and an econometric model (Logistic regression) estimation. We found that whereas male youth had better access to land, participation in extension/advisory services and Farmers’ Training Centers (FTCs), agricultural training, and NGOs, female youth had better participation in non-/off-farm livelihood activities and Productive Safety Net Program (PSNP). Our findings indicated that lack of access to financial resources, limited access to land, poor extension and rural advisory services, limited skills development programs and mentorship were key factors affecting youth participation. Other factors include: targeting criteria, discrimination (e.g. on the basis of gender, social structure), cumbersome organizational procedures and requirements, limited availability and capacity of supporting organizations, poor infrastructural developments, mismatch between needs and services provided, conflict, and climate-induced shocks and uncertainties. To overcome these challenges, local and regional governments and their development partners operating in the area should implement a multi-stakeholder, participatory, co-design and development of programs, projects and interventions to enhance collaboration, youth engagement and benefit. Investments in capacity-building and alternative income-generating activities, entrepreneurship education and business skills training are also important.

Socio-economic Impacts of Forests Rights Act on the Individual Title Holders: An Analytical Study among the Lanjia Saoras of Odisha

The present study examines the socio-economic impacts of the Forest Rights Act (FRA), 2006 on Individual Forest Rights (IFR) title holders from the Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Group (PVTG) of Lanjia Saora in the Gumma block of Gajapati district, Odisha. It analyses the socioeconomic status, land use patterns, occupations, and convergence of government schemes for IFR households across 4 villages through household surveys and focus group discussions covering 52 households. Key findings i.e reveal livelihood dependence on agriculture, agricultural wage labour and lack of basic amenities like pucca housing, electricity and toilets for majority of households. While some support have been provided through rural housing, land development and horticulture schemes, the coverage remains limited. The study therefore recommends increasing awareness about FRA, promoting cash crops, horticulture, Non Timber Forest Products (NTFP) collection and marketing, skill development for off-farm livelihoods, improving connectivity and public infrastructure etc. It conlude the need to address developmental gaps of tribal IFR holders through appropriate policies and convergence of government schemes at the district level.

Extending the boundaries of the value-belief-norm theory to off-farm livelihood preferences – Perceptions of food crop farmers in the savanna ecological zone, Ghana

ABSTRACT This study explored prospects of extending propositions of the value-belief-norm theory to off-farm livelihood preferences among food crop farmers in the savanna ecological zone of Ghana. The predominantly qualitative study used the case study approach. Data collection involved questionnaire administration to 197 households, 6 community-level focus group discussions, and 18 key informant interviews. Quantitative analysis involved a non-parametric chi-square test at 95% confidence level and descriptive statistics. Qualitative data was analyzed thematically using NVivo software. The study departs from the dominant application of the value-belief-norm theory to pro-environmental behavior, to explore the theory’s prospects for explaining off-farm livelihood activities of men and women food crop farmers. It found that effects of climate change on the off-farm livelihoods of male farmers differed significantly from females. The study also found that the fundamental link between values, beliefs, and norms as proposed by the value-belief-norm theory successfully explained off-farm livelihood choices in response to climate change and explained the strong difference between men and women in off-farm livelihood responses. It recommends that public policy developmental programs targeting off-farm livelihoods acknowledge the dichotomy in off-farm livelihood preferences, as well as the role of values, beliefs, and norms, and accommodate these in development programs.

Determinants of urban households in the diversification of livelihood activities: The case of Wolaita zone in southern Ethiopia

Diversification of Livelihood Activities (DLA) is indeed crucial for populous countries like Ethiopia, where it serves as a strategy to mitigate food insecurity. Despite its significance, empirical studies focusing on DLA among urban households in Ethiopia are relatively scarce. Therefore, this study examines factors affecting urban households' participation in the DLA in selected towns of the Wolaita zone. The study used both primary and secondary data. A total of 310 sample respondents from three town administrations in the Wolaita zone: Areka, Boditi, and Sodo, were selected using a multi-phase sampling technique. The study used a survey questionnaire, Key Informant Interviews, Focus Group Discussions, and observations as methods for primary data collection. The collected data was analyzed using descriptive and inferential statistics. The results revealed that among the sampled respondents, 23.9 %, 28.4 %, and 33.2 % depend on on-farm, on-farm + non-farm, non-farm + off-farm activities, respectively, while the remaining 14.5 % diversify their livelihood activities through combinations of on-farm + non-farm + off-farm Livelihood Diversification Activities (LDA). The Multinomial Logot (MNL) model result shows that the participation of LDA in the study areas was positively and negatively determined by cooperative membership, development agent training, gender, education, home ownership, rural connections, household income, and technical skills that were found to be statistically significant at 1 %, 5 %, and 10 %. Therefore, the government should prioritize empowering the diversification of livelihood activities and develop policies and programs that support urban households’ livelihoods, with a specific focus on promoting off-farm and non-farm endeavors.

Determinants Of Livelihood Diversification In Punjab, Pakistan

This study was conducted in three randomly selected districts viz. Vehari, Faisalabad, and Narowal of the Punjab province to examine the determinants of livelihood diversification. Using multistage sampling 480 respondents were interviewed face to face using a structured questionnaire and were analyzed by SPSS (version 21). The major findings reveal that most of the smallholders, i.e., 126 (26.3%), relied on cropping and off-farm livelihood diversification strategies to sustain their household income. The structural determinant factors were identified as “push factors” while household/domestic determinant factors were identified as “pull factors” of livelihood diversification. Moreover, the results of the multiple linear regression model unveiled that household’s choice and adoption of livelihood diversification strategies were positively affected by age, level of education, livestock holding status, access to credit, extension contacts, and income while gender, landholding size, access to irrigation, access to mass media, and crop risk were negatively affected. The study concludes that both structural and household determinants of livelihood diversification contribute positively to improving the smallholders' household well-being and keeping them away from vulnerabilities. The study findings have implications for policymakers and development practitioners who are working to improve the livelihoods of smallholders in the Punjab province, Pakistan.

Impacts of multiple livelihood diversification strategies on diet quality and welfare of smallholder farmers: Insight from Kaffa zone of Ethiopia

In Ethiopia, agriculture is the primary source of food and livelihood for many rural households, making it a dominant sector that seeks to reduce food/nutrition insecurity and poverty. Even if it is dominant, currently the sector is facing many challenges such as unexpected shock like drought and flooding, reduction in output mainly due to soil nutrient degradation and lack of capital to use improved agricultural technologies. Hence, rural households are compelled to develop strategies to cope with the increasing vulnerability associated with agricultural production. The current study therefore assessed rural households' participation in a combination of multiple livelihood diversification strategies and its impact on diet quality and welfare of smallholder farmers in Southwestern Ethiopia. As the average treatment effect on the treated result from multinomial endogenous switching regression model shows, an isolated participation in non-farm livelihood diversification results in a significant effect on smallholder farmers' welfare but, it doesn't have a significant effect on nutrition security measured in dietary diversity. Likewise, joint participation in off-farm and non-farm livelihood diversification results in a significant effect on rural households' nutrition security however it doesn't have a significant effect on welfare. The only livelihood diversification package that has a significant effect on both welfare and nutrition security simultaneously is off-farm livelihood diversification alone. As a result, policymakers and rural finance programs should shift their focus and place a greater emphasis in incentivizing smallholder farmers to invest on diversification strategies that can boost both welfare and nutrition security simultaneously, which is off-farm diversification.

Effect of Rapid Urban Housing Expansion on On-Farm Activities of Rural Household Livelihoods in Simat/Kapseret Ward, Kenya

The study focused on examining how an increase in urban housing expansion affects livelihoods of rural households. The study objective was to determine the effect of urban housing expansion on on-farm activities of households in Kapseret/Simat ward, Kenya. A sample of 164 households was selected from a target population of 13610 households. A systematic random sampling technique was used to obtain the population of the study. A household survey questionnaire and an interview guide were used as tools for data collection taking a mixed methods research design. Quantitative data was analyzed using descriptive methods in form of frequencies, means and deviation. Inferential statistics specifically Chi square was used to test the hypotheses in terms of the strength and direction of the independent and dependent variables. Qualitative data was analyzed thematically and triangulated into the quantitative data of the study. Quantitative study findings indicated that there was a statistical significant relationship between urban housing expansion and on-farm activities of rural households (p=0.000). The qualitative study findings indicated that there was a shift from on-farm to off-farm livelihood activities of rural households. The study concluded that as land value and land sales increased, there was a higher likelihood for demand for land to facilitate the urban housing developments and ultimately housing expansion within the area of study. The study concluded that there was a significant statistical effect of urban housing expansion on rural household livelihoods.

Dimensions of women’s mobility, livelihoods and vulnerability in artisanal and small-scale mining-induced local economy

Dominant artisanal and small-scale mining (ASM) narratives highlight the invisibility of women’s livelihoods and gendered struggles in the sector. Indeed, livelihood practices in ASM, how daily mobilities facilitate these practices and the specific vulnerabilities women face are still understudied and undertheorised. Drawing on qualitative research in Prestea-Bondaye mining area (PBMA), Ghana, we explore the livelihood dimensions, forms of mobility and vulnerabilities of women in ASM from an open rural economy perspective where ASM serves as a centrifugal force that pulls or drives the emergence and sustenance of both farm and other off-farm livelihood activities. Our findings highlight two forms of mobility (i.e. outside the mining communities to ASM spaces, and to/within the mining communities) that are tied to different livelihood practices and vulnerabilities. From our inquiry, women build livelihoods in an ASM-induced local economy in three different forms: permanent, temporary, and indirect. The indirect livelihoods women build in an ASM-induced local economy include: 1) ‘san ban ho’ (side-work livelihood based on credit conditions), 2) petty-trading in ASM spaces, 3) home-based trading, 4) market-day trading, 5) commuting trading, and 6) underground pit ‘ghetto’ sponsorship. The findings show that while daily mobility shape the viability of livelihood-building efforts in an ASM-induced local economy, in most cases women experience different social and economic vulnerabilities that impact their health and livelihood benefits. Implications of our findings for policy and practice are further discussed.

Analysis of the Impact of Livelihood Capital on Livelihood Strategies of Leased-In Farmland Households: A Case Study of Jiangxi Province, China

In the context of the implementation of the rural revitalization strategy, the industrialization of agriculture and rural areas is rapidly increasing, and more and more capable people in rural management are actively leasing land to develop modern agriculture, broaden diversified livelihood channels, and pursue sustainable development. We used leased-in farmland households as an entry point, focusing on the development of rural industries and the choice of livelihood strategies to fill a gap in the existing literature. Based on sustainable livelihood theory, we constructed a sustainable livelihood analysis framework for leased-in farmland households using the survey data of 283 leased-in farmland households in Yudu County. A livelihood capital indicator system was constructed, and the entropy value method and other measurement methods were used. Firstly, we analyzed and comprehensively evaluated the livelihood capital and livelihood strategies of leased-in farmland households in Yudu County, Jiangxi Province. We then used binary logistic regression models and polynomial logistic regression models to analyze the influence of the differentiation in leased-in farmland households’ livelihood capital on the choice of livelihood strategies and their transformation and conducted robustness tests on the relevant findings. Different types of livelihood capital have different effects on agriculture-led livelihood strategies. Natural capital and physical capital have significant positive effects on agriculture-led livelihood strategies, but financial capital, human capital, and social capital have negative effects. Natural capital has a significant negative effect on the pluriactivity strategy, while physical, human, and social capital have insignificant effects on it. For off-farm livelihood strategies, natural capital and financial capital have insignificant effects, physical capital has a significant negative effect, and human capital and social capital have a significant positive contribution.

Determinants of rural households’ livelihood diversification strategies: In the case of north Wollo zone, Amhara National Regional State, Ethiopia

Diversifying rural livelihoods plays a significant role for rain feed-dependent economy of the rural households like in Ethiopia. Hence the objective of the study was to investigate the determinants of rural households’ livelihood diversification strategies choice in north wollo zone of Ethiopia. A multi-stage stratified random sampling technique was used to select 384 rural household heads as a sample in study areas. Primary data was collected from sample rural household heads using an interview schedule. Multivariate Probit Model was employed to identify the factors influencing the rural household heads’ decision to choose livelihood strategies. The model result showed that agriculture livelihood strategy was positively and significantly associated with male headed household, land holding, cooperative membership, and participation in rural productive safety net program; while it is negatively and significantly affected by distance to market. Non-farm livelihood strategy was positively and significantly affected by dependency ratio, education level, total income, and remittance; while it is negatively and significantly affected by the sex of household head and participation in rural productive safety net program. Off-farm livelihood strategy was positively and significantly influenced by sex of household head; while it is negatively and significantly affected by the land holding, total livestock unit, cooperative membership, credit use, participation in rural productive safety net program. Therefore, the study recommends that local government should attempt to promote the above significant determinants of rural households’ livelihood diversification strategies choice to build more profitable and sustainable livelihood strategies.

Local Perception on Effect of Land Degradation in the Blue Nile River Headwaters

Poor land-use practices have threatened the livelihood of rural people in Ethiopia. This study assessed the local perception of the impact of land degradation on rural livelihood in the Blue Nile river headwaters, North Gojjam sub-basin. To achieve this objective, questionnaires were administered for 414 sample households and series of focus group discussions and detailed interviews were held with participants. Descriptive statistics were used to analyze quantitative data while qualitative data were buildup using narration and simple description approaches. The finding showed that all local farmers perceived that land degradation was the main local ecological problem since 2008 in the form of soil erosion, soil nutrient depletion; soil acidity and soil biodiversity loss. Most of them (62.54%) perceived as land degradation severity was high and increasing through time, primarily on cereal crop land. Population growth, using animal dung and crop residue for domestic cooking and heating energy, free grazing, using crop residue for construction, absence of fallowing, poor farming, steep slope, and using inappropriate SWC technologies are the main causes of land degradation in the study area. Most local farmers observed as land degradation has decreased crop and livestock productivity, firewood, and surface water resources accessibility. These resulted in the decline in households’ food security and net income over the last 10 years. The finding showed that farmers used traditional ditche, hillside terrace, soil bund, stone bund, check dam, and waterway to reduce land degradation. To reduce the effect of abject land degradation and to improve rural livelihood in the north Gojjam sub-basin, adopting landscape friendly sustainable land management technologies, encouraging various off-farm livelihoods strategies, upgrading livestock feeding systems, and inspiring sustainable energy sources are very urgent.

The effects of COVID-19 on livelihoods of rural households: South Wollo and Oromia Zones, Ethiopia

Even though the COVID-19 pandemic is a global phenomenon that is heavily affecting the lives, livelihoods, and wellbeing of the entire population, the degree and severity of its effects are different among groups and sectors. In developing countries, where there is poor infrastructure coupled with a low level of education and a high incidence of poverty, the pandemic would result in increased unemployment, decreased income for daily labor, increased food insecurity, depletion of saving and relief measures, and disrupted the marketing system, among others. Recently, some studies have been conducted in Ethiopia regarding the impact of the pandemic on the people and the country as a whole by reviewing the literature and mobile call surveys. However, those studies fail to capture the representative sample and empirical data to forward informed decisions. To this end, the present study has investigated the effect of COVID-19 on the livelihood activities of smallholder farm households in South Wollo and Oromia administrative Zones, Ethiopia. A multistage random sampling procedure was employed to draw 275 respondents out of 32,214 household heads. Data were collected through interview schedules, key informants and case studies from September to November 2020. Descriptive statistics, econometric analysis and qualitative approaches were employed to analyze the data. The major livelihood activities in the study area are crop production (97.4%), livestock rearing (77.4%), daily work (47%), small business (31.4%), livestock trading (30.7%), remittance (24.8%), labor migration (14.8%), sale of firewood (11.1%) and income from Productive Safety Net Program (PSNP) (17%). The study shows that the livelihoods of 88.89% of the households were affected by the pandemic. The pandemic significantly affected and forced households to cease their livelihood activities such as daily labor (34.82%), small business trade (26.3%), livestock trading (23.7%), income from remittance (21.49%) and labor migration (11.48%). This implies that the pandemic particularly affected non-farm and off-farm livelihood diversification strategies. Therefore, the government and other rural development partners should focus on immediate and long-term intervention strategies to recover the most affected households through social security programs, creating market linkage and revolve funding mechanisms.

Unpicking the Inter-relationships Between Off-Farm Livelihood Diversification, Household Characteristics, and Farm Management in the Rural Andes

Rural households across the world are increasingly turning to off-farm sources of income to complement or replace farm income. A better understanding of these livelihood adaptations, their consequences, and the processes behind them will facilitate more effective rural development policies and projects. The objective of this research was to examine how off-farm income influences rural livelihoods, elucidate factors that determine different livelihood strategies, as well as understand how these livelihood strategies are associated with different approaches to farm management. Using data from 588 Rural Household Multi-Indicator Surveys (RHoMIS) in three rural Andean regions in Bolivia, Ecuador, and Peru, we identified a typology of farming household livelihood strategies, and assessed the differences among these household types with regard to household and farm level characteristics, and farm management. We found that among the household types that incorporated off-farm income into their livelihood strategies, there were significant differences in approaches to farm management. Specifically, we observed an increased use of industrialized farming techniques among one household type, a deintensification, or a stepping-out of farming activities in another household type, and a tendency toward livestock specialization in the other household type. Moreover, our findings revealed that household level characteristics (age and education level of head(s) of household, and household composition) played an important role in mediating which type of livelihood strategy the households employed. For example, “stepping-out” households generally had younger and more educated household heads. Location-specific factors such as access to markets, irrigation, and off-farm employment opportunities were also likely to be highly influential in terms of which pathways farming households adopted as their livelihood strategy. We conclude that rural development programmes and projects must be driven by the rural communities themselves taking into account this heterogeneity in household characteristics and livelihoods and engaging in the already advanced conversations around different approaches to farming and the conservation of common natural resources.

Livelihood diversification in managing catastrophic risks: evidence from flood-disaster regions of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Province of Pakistan.

Pakistan's agricultural productivity is considered to be low despite several agriculture promotion policies. Such policies concentrate primarily on on-farm development and overlook rich prospects for off-farm diversification. Livelihood diversification of small-scale farmers plays a major role in reducing hunger and mitigating the adverse impacts of climate change. Therefore, this paper seeks to analyze livelihood diversification in managing catastrophic risks among rural farm households of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Province of Pakistan. We have interviewed a total of 600 farm households through a standardized questionnaire in two districts (Nowshera and Charsadda) of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Province of Pakistan that were badly affected by the 2010 flood. For empirical analysis, a logistic regression model was chosen to analyze the important attributes that are correlated to livelihood diversification of the rural households in flood-susceptible areas of Pakistan. The survey findings indicate that 50% of the total sample respondents adopted off-farm livelihood diversification strategies, while 40.5% of farm households adopted on-farm livelihood diversification strategies in managing catastrophic risks. The logistic regression model results show that attributes including socioeconomic and demographic, institutional, and risk perception significantly influenced households' choices of livelihood diversification. Also, the findings indicated a wide range of livelihood diversification constrained including climatic risks and uncertainties (23%), inadequate natural resources (17%), limited level of skills and training (15%), lack of institutional support (12%), lack of credit facilities (11%), poor infrastructure including markets and roads (16%), and lack of labor availability (4%). The study urges the need for robust climate change adaptation policies, in particular, by aiming at training initiatives, improving access to services, and enhancing institutional assistance, and better infrastructure. The livelihood of small-scale farmers could only improve if the Government pays due consideration and adopts the right policy initiatives that promote the diversification of livelihoods as part of the creation of national jobs to save many lives and improve livelihoods.

Determinants of adoption of Indigenous Knowledge (IK) based technology in handicrafts among rural women of Amathole, South Africa: A double hurdle model approach

Indigenous Knowledge (IK) based technologies and skills have been central to rural livelihoods for ages. Women apply these techniques in a wide range of livelihood activities both on-farm and off-farm. Despite, growing scholarly work on adoption of technologies in rural areas, howbeit studies which focused on adoption of retro technologies and off-farm livelihood activities are very few. Given how central both IK based technologies and handicrafts are in the rural development nexus, studying determinants of adoption of such technologies among rural women assumes importance. This study used a cross-sectional survey of 170 rural women (88 adopters and 82 non-adopters) in Amathole District Municipality. Adoption of IK based technology was specified as a two-step decision process with awareness as a precondition for adoption. Thus, the study employed the Heckman two-stage model to analyze factors affecting awareness and adoption of IK based technologies among rural women. Age, employment status, social networks, access to material, access to the tourism market and workshop attendance influenced awareness. Employment status, number of employed household members, workshops attendance and crafter experience influenced adoption. The study urges the development of a comprehensive policy framework to promote awareness and adoption of IK based technologies in handicrafts as a rural poverty alleviation and employment creation strategy.

The Role of Rural Livelihood Diversification Strategies for Household Food Security in Southern Ethiopia: Empirical Evidence from Kecha Bira District of Kembata Tembaro Zone

Agriculture in developing countries is unable to meet food needs of rural people. Thus, rural households engage in to different livelihood diversification activities to ensure their food needs and secure their future livelihoods. The study investigated the role of livelihood diversification strategies for rural household food security in Kembata Tembaro Zone, Southern Ethiopia with empirical evidence from Kecha Birra district with data collected from a sample of 355 households selected by multistage sampling technique. The descriptive statistics were used to identify the livelihood strategies in the study area. The finding of the study indicated that majority of the rural households (41.6%) engaged into on-farm activity. However, 22.54%, 21.41% and 14.37% practice on-farm plus off- farm; on-farm plus non-farm; and on-farm plus off-farm plus non-farm livelihood diversification activities respectively. Household food insecurity access scale (HFIAS) was used to measure food security status of households. The study result showed that 51.27% households were food insecure and the rest 48.73% were food secured. Logistic regression model was used to assess the role of livelihood diversification strategies to rural household food security. The results of the model indicated livelihood diversification strategies, Income obtained from diversification activities, Education status of the households, Total farm land size of households, Total livestock unit owned and Training and extension service are positively and significantly related to rural household food security status and improves food security status of rural households. It confirmed that livelihood diversification strategies have a positive effect and would be the best solution to reduce poverty and improve food security at household level in rural areas. Therefore, due attention should be given to strengthen livelihood diversification strategies so as to improve rural household food security.

Impacts of Cash Crop Production on Household Food Security for Smallholder Farmers: A Case of Shamva District, Zimbabwe

Zimbabwe has recently experienced a considerable shift towards the production of more cash crops, such as tobacco, at the expense of food crops. Although cash cropping has been associated with increased income, the question is whether the income gained from cash crops would be enough to provide the food needs of farming households. This research was conducted to analyse the impact of cash crops on household food security. A cross-sectional survey consisting of 281 randomly selected smallholder farmers in Shamva District was used for primary data collection. Data were analysed using the Tobit regression model and Propensity score matching (PSM). The household dietary diversity score (HDDS) was used to measure food security. The PSM results showed a positive impact of cash crop production on the HDDS. This could be attributed to the income effect of cash cropping. Furthermore, Tobit regression results showed that cash crop production (p < 0.1), non-farm income (p < 0.01), total arable land (p < 0.05) and access to draft power (p < 0.05) positively influenced household food security. Household size negatively impacted food security (p < 0.05). While the results from this study suggest the need to promote cash crop production, it should not be regarded as the panacea for addressing food insecurity. There is a need for further research to derive optimum combinations of cash and food crops in the crop mixture for smallholder farmers to achieve food security. Furthermore, opportunities for off-farm livelihood options should be developed, since non-farm income had a positive effect on food security.

Gender-Specific Livelihood Strategies for Coping with Climate Change-Induced Food Insecurity in Southeast Nigeria

This study assessed the livelihood strategies adopted by husbands and wives within the same households for coping with climate-induced food insecurity in Southeast Nigeria. Collective and bargaining approaches were used in collecting individual and intra-household-level data of 120 pairs of spouses in Southeast Nigeria; husbands and wives were interviewed separately. Focus group discussions, key informant interviews, and household surveys were used to elicit responses from the respondents. Quantitative data for the study were analyzed using percentage, mean scores, and multinomial logit regression analysis. Results of the study revealed that 90% of the wives were more food insecure than their husbands (79.2%). The respondents noted that the observed changes in the climate contributed immensely to their food insecurity situation. To cope with food insecurity, a slightly higher proportion (47.3% and 14.2%) of wives adopted on-farm and non-farm strategies, respectively, while men (39.8%) adopted more off-farm strategies (38.5%). Additionally, results of the multinomial logit regression revealed that market distance and credit access significantly influenced the choice of husbands’ and wives’ engagement in off-farm livelihood strategy; sourcing information on climate change issues significantly influenced women’s choice of engagement in off-farm/non-farm strategy; and receiving remittances significantly influenced men’s choice of engagement in non-farm strategy. The study concluded that, although women play crucial roles in addressing food insecurity within their households, gender-specific obstacles typically impede their abilities to cope with climate-induced food insecurity.

Managing climate risk through crop diversification in rural Kenya

Climatic variability and change continue to militate against efforts to increase agricultural productivity and food and nutrition security in many developing countries. Several studies propose crop diversification as a climate risk management strategy to increase production and food security. Most of the empirical studies are based on cross-sectional data that do not account for unobserved factors that may affect crop diversification. A disaggregated analysis of the influence of climatic variability and change on crop diversification by agroecological profiles is less explored. Panel studies also do not combine more than one climatic variability and change indicator as we do. We employ panel data models on farm household and 31-year rainfall and temperature data to analyze the effects of climatic variability and change on crop diversification among small-scale farmers disaggregated by agroecological zones in Kenya. We find widespread crop diversification among small farms in warmer regions as a risk management strategy. Results further show that smaller farm size, limited use of inorganic fertilizer, low household incomes, and limited access to off-farm livelihood options influence the decision to diversify crop production. However, crop diversification is not a one-size-fits-all strategy and should be adopted in situations where it gives maximum benefits, consistent with existing land use policies and known benefits of a specified crop portfolio. Crop diversification should not crowd-out specialization, particularly among resource-endowed farmers.

Multiple livelihood strategies and high floristic diversity increase the adaptive capacity and resilience of Sri Lankan farming enterprises

Globally farmers are challenged by increasing climate variability and frequency of extreme events. However, traditional farming enterprises demonstrate resilience. To understand the underlying reasons, traditional farming enterprises in Sri Lanka were explored. Eighty-five farming enterprises were sampled across nine locations of the Intermediate agroecological zone using mixed methods. Farming enterprises incorporate On- and Off-farm livelihood components (graphical abstract). On-farm refers to landholdings with land uses including tree-dominant forest gardens (FGs), paddy, cash crops, swidden plots (chenas), plantations and livestock. Off-farm includes employment, trading and grants. We investigated how farming enterprises remained resilient, and which land use had the greatest adaptive capacity and best fulfilled household needs? Farming enterprises were assessed with respect to water availability, farmers' perspectives of climate variability, their socioeconomic characteristics, and land uses in landholdings. Land uses were characterised and compared by floristic diversity, crop: utility benefits, food functions, and those consumed and sold. Results revealed that most respondents were women, had primary school education and engaged full-time in farming. Cultivation was mainly rainfed. Farmers' perceptions of climate variability were supported by meteorological data showing that interannual and seasonal rainfall variability prevailed in the reference and preceding years. Farmers withstood these challenges owing to FGs, which were the oldest and dominant of all land uses, with larger area, highest plant and crop species richness, and crop diversity. Greater numbers of primary and secondary FG crops and products provided multiple household benefits. High floristic diversity, tree-dominance and multifunctionality gave FGs strong adaptive capacity. Nevertheless, farmers adopted multiple land uses with diverse landscape designs and Off-farm livelihood strategies simultaneously because this combination offered greater opportunities, buffered risk and increased resilience in farming enterprises. A clear implication of this study is that policymakers should engage with farmers when planning for a resilient agriculture in a variable climate scenario.