Odocoileus Virginanus Research Articles

Multiple piroplasm parasites (Apicomplexa: Piroplasmida) in northeastern populations of the invasive Asian longhorned tick, Haemaphysalis longicornis Neumann (Ixodida: Ixodidae), in the United States.

Piroplasms, which include the agents of cattle fever and human and dog babesiosis, are a diverse group of blood parasites of significant veterinary and medical importance. The invasive Asian longhorned tick, Haemaphysalis longicornis, is a known vector of piroplasms in its native range in East Asia and invasive range in Australasia. In the USA, H. longicornis has been associated with Theileria orientalis Ikeda outbreaks that caused cattle mortality. To survey invasive populations of H. longicornis for a broad range of piroplasms, 667 questing H. longicornis collected in 2021 from 3 sites in New Jersey, USA, were tested with generalist piroplasm primers targeting the 18S small subunit rRNA (395–515 bp, depending on species) and the cytochrome b oxidase loci (1009 bp). Sequences matching Theileria cervi type F (1 adult, 5 nymphs), an unidentified Theileria species (in 1 nymph), an undescribed Babesia sensu stricto (‘true’ Babesia, 2 adults, 2 nymphs), a Babesia sp. Coco (also a ‘true Babesia’, 1 adult, 1 nymph), as well as Babesia microti S837 (1 adult, 4 nymphs) were recovered. Babesia microti S837 is closely related to the human pathogen B. microti US-type. Additionally, a 132 bp sequence matching the cytochrome b locus of deer, Odocoileus virginanus, was obtained from 2 partially engorged H. longicornis. The diverse assemblage of piroplasms now associated with H. longicornis in the USA spans 3 clades in the piroplasm phylogeny and raises concerns of transmission amplification of veterinary pathogens as well as spillover of pathogens from wildlife to humans.

Importance—Satisfaction Analysis of Deer Management Cooperative Members

ABSTRACTOur study explored the utility of using Importance‐Satisfaction Analysis (ISA) to identify critical attributes to deer management cooperative (DMC) member satisfaction. With white‐tailed deer (Odocoileus virginanus) management by landowners becoming an increasingly popular conservation tool, DMCs represent an approach by private landowners and hunters to collaboratively improve deer herds and hunting quality. Deer management cooperatives are a group of landowners and hunters voluntarily working together to improve the quality of wildlife, habitat, and hunting experiences on their collective acreage. Deer management cooperatives show promise in providing dual benefits to hunter satisfaction and large‐scale conservation efforts such as increasing habitat connectivity. Heterogeneity of satisfaction for deer hunting is well‐documented and DMC member satisfaction is an important factor in member retention and recruitment. We surveyed 2,817 members of 45 DMCs across five states (Georgia, Michigan, Missouri, New York, and Texas) using ISA methodology to better understand their satisfaction with their experience. Hunters’ responses (n = 459) to the 22 attributes measured were segmented by their divergent motivations for DMC membership, resulting in four unique clusters for comparison (Solitude Members, Social Members, Representative Members, and Quality Harvest Members). Our results indicated that motivations for membership influenced importance and satisfaction ratings, further elucidating that multiple types of hunters and members exist within DMC networks. Areas of agreement among the four DMC clusters were the need for Neighbors to follow Quality Deer Management practices, that DMCs are performing well on members Seeing deer and Co‐op members sharing similar harvest goals, and that Preventing crop damage and the Lease value of the DMC property are low priorities. However, there was little agreement in quadrant placement among the four membership clusters for the remaining 17 attributes indicating the importance of DMCs understanding their individual members’ motivations for joining. By retaining satisfied members, DMCs can continue to provide the hunting quality expected as well as the tangential conservation benefits. © 2021 The Wildlife Society.

Genetic Characterization of the Giant Liver Fluke, Fascioloides magna (Platyhelminthes: Fasciolidae) From the Adirondack Region of Northern New York

The giant liver fluke, Fascioloides magna, is an important parasite of white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginanus), a commercially important game species in the northeastern United States. However, the parasite has never been genetically characterized from this region and so its genetic interrelationships with other enzootic populations on the continent are unknown. The purpose of this study was to genetically characterize F. magna from the Adirondack region of northern New York (NNY) and determine its relationship with its enzootic cohorts. Flukes were extracted from seven livers of O. virginanus at three localities in and around the Adirondack Park in northern New York. DNA was extracted from eight individuals using standard procedures, and a 440-bp fragment of the COI gene was amplified using species-specific primers. F. magna sequences generated from a previous phylogeographic study were obtained from the GenBank database and a mtDNA dataset was compiled, aligned, and edited for molecular analyses. Analyses based on eight mtDNA sequences included haplotype network reconstruction, along with hierarchical and pairwise (ФST) AMOVA tests. F. magna from the Adirondacks was found to be most genetically similar to specimens from Minnesota based on shared haplotypes and relatively low genetic differentiation (ФST = 0.331). East coast enzootic populations exhibited panmixia while their west coast cohorts were genetically distinct. Based on the strong genetic similarities between F. magna from northern New York and Minnesota, we propose that the GLR enzootic range of F. magna be extended to encompass the Adirondack region of NNY.

Soil chemistry, and not short-term (1-2 year) deer exclusion, explains understory plant occupancy in forests affected by acid deposition.

The loss of species diversity and plant community structure throughout the temperate deciduous forests of North America have often been attributed to overbrowsing by white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginanus). Slow species recovery following removal from browsing, or reduction in deer density, has been termed a legacy effect of past deer herbivory. However, vegetation legacy effects have also coincided with changes to soil chemistry throughout the north-eastern USA. In this paper, we assess the viability of soil chemistry (i.e. pH, extractable nutrients and extractable metals) and other factors (topography, light, overstory basal area and location) as alternative explanations for a lack of vegetation recovery. We compared the relative effects of soil chemistry, site conditions and short-term (1-2 year) deer exclusion on single-species occupancy probabilities of 10 plant taxa common to oak-hickory forests in central Pennsylvania. We found detection for all modelled species was constant and high ( > 0.65), and occupancy probability of most taxa was best explained by at least one soil chemistry parameter. Specifically, ericaceous competing vegetation was more likely to occupy acidic (pH < 3.5), base cation-poor (K < 0.20 cmolc kg-1) sites, while deer-preferred plants were less likely to occur when soil manganese exceeded 0.1 cmolc kg-1. Short-term deer exclusion did not explain occupancy of any plant taxon, and site conditions were of nominal importance. This study demonstrates the importance of soil chemistry in shaping plant community composition in the north-central Appalachians, and suggests soil as an alternative, or additional, explanation for deer vegetation legacy effects. We suggest that the reliance on phyto-indicators of deer browsing effects may overestimate the effects of browsing if those species are also limited by unfavourable soil conditions. Future research should consider study designs that address the complexity of deer forest interactions, especially in areas with complex site-vegetation histories.

Factors Affecting White-Tailed Deer-Browsing Rates on Early Growth Stages of Soybean Crops

White-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginanus) damage to soybean crops is a concern for soybean producers. Although researchers have documented decreases in the intensity of deer-browse on soybean plants as the growing season progresses, an understanding of the mechanisms driving the decrease in deer-browse is necessary for reduction and mitigation of deer damage to soybean crops. We tested 4 hypotheses to determine why deer-browse rates decrease 3 weeks after plant emergence: (1) plant phenology affects plant palatability; (2) diet change occurs; (3) deer damage induces a plant response making soybean leaves less palatable: and (4) deer consume fewer leaves but the same amount of leaf biomass as the season progresses. We recorded deer-browse in double- and single-crop soybean fi elds in Little Creek, Delaware, during the 2005 to 2006 growing seasons. To test if plant phenology affected deer-browse, we conducted a forage analysis of soybean leaves at different growth stages. Although forage quality components were variable across the growing season, white-tailed deer dietary requirements were met or exceeded in all cases. We compared deer diet composition using microhistological analyses across the early soybean growing season. The proportion of soybeans in the diet increased from 13 to 37% from late May to early July. We tested for an induced plant response by comparing the browse rates of plots that were protected from deer- browsing until 4 weeks after plant emergence to plots that received no protection. Although we documented greater browse rates in the protected plots once protection was removed, we also documented that protected plots had taller plants, suggesting that deer may have been attracted to the taller plants. The amount of soybean leaf biomass that deer were consuming across the growing season increased from the early to late growth stages of soybeans. Based on our results, we believe that the increasing biomass of soybean leaves is the most plausible explanation for the decrease in browsing rate that we observed as soybeans matured.

AN INVESTIGATION INTO THE USE OF ROAD DRAINAGE STRUCTURES BY WILDLIFE IN MARYLAND

Culverts have been installed beneath roadways for drainage or to contain existing streams; however, most of them have not been installed to facilitate the passage of wildlife. Prior studies of existing drainage structures used by wildlife have been narrow in scope, targeting a restricted number of culverts, time periods, or locales. Use of culverts by wildlife has been postulated to promote connectivity of fragmented populations and their habitats and to reduce roadkills. We monitored 265 culverts located throughout Maryland, USA, with game cameras in all seasons and in every physiographic province. Our objectives were to identify those species using culverts and their relative occurrence and to determine how culvert and land-use and land-cover (LULC) characteristics affect use. We documented culvert use by 57 wildlife species. We analyzed species affi liation with culvert and LULC variables for 12 species that occurred in ≥30 culverts. Different factors affected culvert use by these species. White-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginanus), in particular, used culverts that were wider, taller, and longer than unused culverts, with higher use occurring in the Piedmont physiographic province of Maryland. Our results can be used to make informed decisions on retrofi tting existing culverts or designing cost-effective underpasses that provide basic wildlife needs and promote wildlife passage across roadways.

Tissue residue levels of florfenicol, ceftiofur, tulathromycin, oxytetracycline, cydectin in white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginanus) at 11, 21, and 31 days post intramuscular injection

Tissue residues were determined after intramuscular injection of florfenicol, ceftiofur, tulathromycin, oxytetracycline, and moxidectin in 102 white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus). At day 11, 21, and 31 post injection, only tulathromycin was detected at a level >0.01ppm in the deer liver and muscle samples tested. Oxytetracycline was only detected in liver at day 11 post injection; no other drugs were detected in either muscle or liver at these time points.

Tissue Residue Levels of Butorphanol, Azaperone, Medetomidine, Atipamezole, and Naltrexone in White-tailed Deer (Odocoileus virginanus) at 11 and 21 Days Post Intramuscular Injection

Tissue residues were determined after intramuscular injection of butorphanol, azaperone, medetomidine, atipamezole, and naltrexone in 33 white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus). At day 11 post injection (PI), and day 21 PI, none of anesthetics or reversal drugs were detected ≥0.01 ppm in any of the liver and muscle samples tested.

Spatio-temporal patterns of an anthrax outbreak in white-tailed deer, Odocoileus virginanus, and associated genetic diversity of Bacillus anthracis.

BackgroundAnthrax, a soil-borne zoonosis caused by the bacterium Bacillus anthracis, is enzootic in areas of North America with frequent outbreaks in west Texas. Despite a long history of study, pathogen transmission during natural outbreaks remains poorly understood. Here we combined case-level spatio-temporal analysis and high resolution genotyping to investigate anthrax transmission dynamics. Carcass locations from a single white-tailed deer, Odocoileus virginanus, outbreak were analyzed for spatial clustering using K-function analysis and directionality with trend surface analysis and the direction test.ResultsThe directionalities were compared to results of high resolution genotyping. The results of the spatial clustering analyses, combined with deer movement data, suggest anthrax transmission events occur within limited spatial areas, with carcass locations occurring within the activity space of adjacent cases. The directionality of the outbreak paralleled adjacent dry river beds. Isolates from the outbreak were represented by a single genotype based on multiple locus variable number tandem repeat analysis (MLVA); four sub-genotypes were identified using single nucleotide repeat (SNR) analysis.ConclusionsAreas of high transmission agreed spatially with areas of higher SNR genetic diversity; however, SNRs did not provide clear evidence of linear transmission. Overlap of case home ranges provides spatial and temporal support for localized transmission, which may include the role of necrophagous or hematophagous flies in outbreaks in this region. These results emphasize the need for active surveillance and prompt cleanup of anthrax carcasses to control anthrax both during outbreaks and between seasons.Electronic supplementary materialThe online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12898-015-0054-8) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

NATURAL AND EXPERIMENTAL INFECTION OF WHITE-TAILED DEER (ODOCOILEUS VIRGINIANUS) FROM THE UNITED STATES WITH AN EHRLICHIA SP. CLOSELY RELATED TO EHRLICHIA RUMINANTIUM

An Ehrlichia sp. (Panola Mountain [PM] Ehrlichia sp.) closely related to Ehrlichia ruminantium was recently detected in a domestic goat experimentally infested with lone star ticks (LSTs, Amblyomma americanum) collected from Georgia, USA. The infected goat exhibited pyrexia and mild clinical pathologic abnormalities consistent with ehrlichiosis. At least two other Ehrlichia species (Ehrlichia chaffeensis and Ehrlichia ewingii) are maintained in nature by a cycle involving LSTs as the primary vector and white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginanus) as a known or suspected reservoir. To investigate the possibility that white-tailed deer are potential hosts of the PM Ehrlichia sp., whole blood samples collected from 87 wild deer from 2000 to 2002 were screened with a species-specific nested PCR assay targeting the citrate synthase gene. In addition, two laboratory-raised white-tailed deer fawns were each infested with 120 wild-caught LST adults from Missouri, USA, and blood samples were periodically collected and tested for the PM Ehrlichia sp. Of 87 deer tested from 20 locations in the southeastern United States, three (3%) deer from Arkansas, North Carolina, and Virginia were positive for the PM Ehrlichia sp. Wild-caught ticks transmitted the PM Ehrlichia sp. to one of two deer fawns, and colony-reared nymphal LSTs acquired the organism from the deer, maintained it transstadially as they molted to adults, and transmitted the PM Ehrlichia sp. to two naïve fawns. These findings indicate that white-tailed deer are naturally and experimentally susceptible to infection with an Ehrlichia sp. closely related to E. ruminantium and are able to serve as a source of infection to LSTs.

Controlled-release components of PZP contraceptive vaccine extend duration of infertility

Successful immunocontraception of wildlife relying on repeated access to individuals for boosters has highlighted the need to incorporate primer and booster immunisations into one injection. We have investigated use of controlled-release polymers (lactide–glycolide) in small pellets to provide delayed in vivo delivery of booster porcine zona pellucida (PZP) antigen and adjuvant. This report reviews pellet-making methodology, in vitro testing of controlled-release pellets and in vivo effects of controlled-release PZP vaccine. We assessed 3 different manufacturing approaches for producing reliable, cost-effective pellets: (1) polymer melting and extrusion; (2) solvent evaporation from polymer solution; and (3) punch and die polymer moulding. In vitro testing of release patterns of controlled-release formulations, towards development of a 3-year duration vaccine, provided estimates for in vivo use of pellet preparations. These in vitro studies demonstrated protein release delay up to 22 months using 100% l-lactide or polycaprolactone polymers. For in vivo tests, pellets (1-, 3-, and 12-month release delay) serving as boosters were administered intramuscularly with PZP/adjuvant liquid primer to wild horses (Equus caballus), white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginanus) and African elephants (Loxodonta africana). Horse field studies assessed fertility via offspring counts and/or faecal-hormone pregnancy testing. Treatment decreased fertility 5.3–9.3-fold in Year 1 and 3.6-fold in Year 2. In preliminary testing in deer, offspring counts revealed treatment-associated fertility reduction of 7.1-fold Year 1 and 3.3-fold Year 2. In elephants, treatment elevated anti-PZP titres 4.5–6.9-fold from pretreatment (no fertility data).

Digestibility of Forage Diets of White-tailed Deer (Odocoileus virginanus, Hays) using Different Ruminal Fluid Inocula

Clemente, F., Riquelme, E., Mendoza, G.D., Bárcena, R., González, S. and Ricalde, R. 2005. Digestibility of forage diets of white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginanus, Hays) using different ruminal fluid inocula. J. Appl. Anim. Res., 27: 71–76. Ruminal inocula obtained from goat, cow and feral and captive deer were used to determine in vitro dry matter digestibility (IVDMD) of forages and diets consumed by white tailed deer in a temperate forest in Mexico. No differences (P>0.05) in IVDMD were detected using different inoculum sources. The IVDMD (%) of gramineae component of diet was lower (P<0.05) for deer ruminal fluid (feral 23.0, captive 28.0) than that from domestic ruminants (cow 31.9, goat 31.5). Correlation coefficients results using ruminal fluids from feral deer and domestic ruminants were high (0.97–0.99). The IVDMD of the forage diets varied significantly among plant groups and seasons and was 48% (summer), 32% (fall) and 29% (winter). Ruminal fluid from domestic ruminants can be used to estimate digestibility of forages consumed by feral white tailed deer.

PATERNITY ASSIGNMENT FOR WHITE-TAILED DEER (ODOCOILEUS VIRGINIANUS): MATING ACROSS AGE CLASSES AND MULTIPLE PATERNITY

Incomplete observations of matings and uncertainty about which male's sperm is responsible for fertilization have traditionally made paternity difficult to document in field research. Modern genetic methods, combined with field data, now facilitate assigning paternity in many species. I investigated male reproductive success in white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginanus) by a microsatellite paternity analysis, which revealed that males from all age classes >0.5 years fathered offspring. The oldest males did not monopolize matings; for 12 of 14 males > 3 years old who fathered young, the numbers of females mated and young fathered were highly variable (1–7 and 1–9, respectively). Three yearling males that bred mated with 3 yearling females and one 2.5-year-old female, whereas all other male age classes mated with females from any age class. In addition, the 1st cases of frequent multiple paternity in free-ranging white-tailed deer were documented. Multiple paternity was found in 22% of twins, with paternity assigned at the 95% confidence level. Males that jointly sired twins appeared at least a year apart in age (maximum age difference, 3 years). It is proposed that older males displaced younger males tending estrous females.

Immobilization of Clover-trapped White-tailed Deer, &lt;em&gt;Odocoileus virginianus&lt;/em&gt;, with Medetomidine and Ketamine, and Antagonism with Atipamezole

We evaluated the effectiveness of immobilizing Clover-trapped White-tailed Deer (Odocoileus virginanus) with medetomidine hydrochloride (HCl) and ketamine HCl during winter and summer by monitoring immobilization intervals and vital signs. In winter, we captured deer in Clover traps in 1 4-ha research enclosure for relocation to another on-site enclosure (n = 5). In summer, we captured free-ranging deer in Clover traps to attach radio-collars (n = 4). We administered an estimated 0.055 mg/kg medetomidine HCl and 2.5 mg/kg ketamine HCl to adult (&gt; 1.5 years of age) deer and 0.06 mg/kg medetomidine HCl and 2.5 mg/kg ketamine HCl to subadult (&lt; 1.5 years of age) deer. We used an intramuscular injection of atipamezole HCl as the antagonist at a rate of 0.275 mg/kg for adults and 0.3 mg/kg for subadults &gt; 30 minutes post-induction. Mean induction time in winter was 11.2 minutes (SE = 2.5, range = 5.4 - 24.2) and 6.5 minutes (SE = 0.8, range = 6.2 - 7.5) in summer. After atipamezole HCl injection, the mean time to walking was 17.1 minutes (SE = 3.5, range = 7.5 - 41.5 minutes) in winter and 11.3 minutes (SE = 3.8, range = 4.7 - 13.5) in summer. Rectal temperature was relatively constant throughout immobilization; however rectal temperatures of 5 deer (n = 3 in winter; n = 2 in summer) exceeded 40oC, a sign of hyperthermia. Respiration rate and pulse rate peaked at about 20 minutes post-medetomidine HCl and ketamine HCl injection, then generally declined thereafter. No mortalities were observed in our study. Medetomidine HCl and ketamine HCl doses for Clover-trapped White-tailed Deer provided satisfactory induction times, sufficient level of anesthesia for short-distance relocation or radio-collar attachment, and were effectively reversed with an IM injection of atipamezole HCl.

Seasonal activity and host associations of Ixodes scapularis (Acari: Ixodidae) in southeastern Missouri.

Based on tick collections recovered from wild vertebrates and by dragging, the seasonal occurrence of adult blacklegged ticks, Ixodes scapularis Say, extended from October through May in southeastern Missouri. Adult activity was bimodal with the higher peak occurring in November followed by a lower peak in February. The activity of immature I. scapularis had the general pattern of that found in the Northeast where Lyme disease is hyperendemic, with larval activity (July) peaking after that of nymphs (May and June). Vertebrates varied in their importance as hosts of I. scapularis. White-tailed deer, Odocoileus virginanus (Zimmerman), and coyotes, Canis latrans Say, were the primary hosts of adult I. scapularis. Broad-headed skinks, Eumeces laticeps (Schneider), and eastern fence lizards, Sceloporus undulatus (Latreille), were the primary hosts of nymphal I. scapularis. The broad-headed skink, 5-lined skink, Eumeces fasciatus (L.), and Carolina wren, Thryothorus ludovicianus (Latham), were the primary hosts of larval I. scapularis. Homeotherms were important hosts of immature I. scapularis, accounting for 30% of nymphs and 39% of larvae collected. The eastern cottontail rabbit, Sylvilagus floridanus (Allen), may play an important role in the epidemiology of Lyme disease in Missouri. Isolates of Borrelia burgdorferi Johnson, Schmid, Hyde, Steigerwalt & Brenner were made from ticks recovered from rabbits, making the cottontail rabbit a key species for further study of the epidemiology of Lyme borreliosis in Missouri.

Behaviors of Bobcats Preying on White-tailed Deer in the Everglades

Abstract Predatory behaviors of bobcats (Lynx rufus) that preyed on 39 radio-instrumented white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginanus) in the Everglades during a 3-yr study, 1 April 1989–31 March 1992, are described and compared with those of other felids. Bobcats killed 33 fawns and six adults by administering ≥one bite to the neck and throat region. The maximum prey:predator weight ratio was 8:1. Twelve (31%) of 39 kills were dragged 2–10 m to concealment cover before being eaten. Twelve (71%) of 17 carcasses that were not dragged from the kill site exhibited a characteristic death form in that the head on each was twisted backwards (throat dorsal) and positioned diagonally under the shoulder. Feeding was initiated on large muscle masses, predominantly on the hindquarters. Bobcats eviscerated 29 (83%) of 35 carcasses, severed ≥ one fore- or hind-limbs from 18 (55%) of 33 kills, and plucked hair from 13 (33%) of 39 carcasses. Bobcats partially or completely covered 17 (52%) of 33 carcasses with plant litter...

Effects of Spotted Knapweed on a Cervid Winter-Spring Range in Idaho

Spotted knapweed (Centaurea maculosa Lam.), an exotic member of the Compositae, infests large areas of rangeland in the northwestern United States. We assessed the impacts of infestation on a wilderness winter-spring range for elk (Cervus elaphus nelsoni Bailey), mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus Raf.), and white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginanus Raf.) along the Selway River in Idaho and found no evidence of a large reduction in carrying capacity. We estimated cervid densities in open areas by scan sampling known area blocks. Densities in knapweed vegtation were greater than or equal to densities in areas of native bunchgrasses and sedges. Direct observation of animals and laboratory analyses of fecal and rumen samples showed spotted knapweed seedheads and rosette leaves were being eaten by all cervid species. Deer ate large amounts of rosette leaves at times in contrast to elk, which consumed them frequently, but in small amounts. Seedhead consumption was greatest during periods of snow cover. We collected composite samples of knapweed times and determined energy and protein content wtth standard laboratory techniques. Energy and protein content of rosettes was near that of preferred native food plants. Seedheads, while less nutritious than rosettes, remained easily obtainable above the snow. The amount of energy and protein available on sample plots decreased modestly at most after infestation. In composite samples of spotted knapweed the content of cnicin, a sesquiterpene lactone in aerial tissues, was determined by high performance liquid chromotography. Changes in cnicin levels did not appear to be responsible for seasonal changes in the amount of knapweed in cervid diets. When estimating or predicting carrying capacity of a cervid range, spotted knapweed should be considered a potential food.

Haemaphysalis juxtakochi Cooley (Acari: ixodidae), a neotropical tick species, found in Ohio.

Haemaphysalis juxtakochi Cooley, 1946, an ectoparasite of deer and other large mammals from Mexico southward through Central and South America, was recovered from the ear of a white-tailed deer, Odocoileus virginanus Zimmermann, in Ohio. This represents the first record of H. juxtakochi from the United States.

Mitochondrial and nuclear genetic relationships of deer (Odocoileus spp.) in western North America

Odocoileus hemionus (mule deer and black-tailed deer) and Odocoileus virginanus (white-tailed deer) are sympatric in western North America and are characterized by distinct morphology, behavior, and allozyme allele frequencies. However, there is discordance among nuclear and mitochondrial genetic relationships, as mule deer (O. h. hemionus) and white-tailed deer have similar mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) which is very different from that of black-tailed deer (O. h. columbianus, O. h. sitkensis). I expanded previous studies to clarify the genetic relationships of these groups by determining mtDNA haplotype and allozyme genotypes for 667 deer from several locations in northwestern North America. Different mtDNA haplotypes in mule deer, black-tailed deer, and white-tailed deer indicate that mitochondrial gene flow is restricted. Allozyme allele frequencies indicate that there is also restriction of nuclear gene flow between O. virginianus and O. hemionus, and to a lesser extent between mule deer and black-tailed deer. There is a low level of introgressive hybridization of mtDNA from mule deer and black-tailed deer into white-tailed deer populations and considerable interbreeding of mule deer and black-tailed deer in a contact zone. The discordance of mitochondrial and nuclear genomes is apparent only if mtDNA sequence divergences, and not haplotype frequencies, are considered.

Seasonal Abundance of Lone Star Ticks 1 on White-tailed Deer 2

Peak infestations of adult Amblyomma americanum (L.) ticks on white-tailed deer [ Odocoileus virginanus (Boddaert)] occurred in late May, June and early July in 1973 and 1974. Significant nymphal tick infestations were observed from April to October. Peak larval tick infestations occurred in late July and August. The dynamics of the infestation levels were affected by climatic conditions and deer numbers. Repression of repletion of the adult and nymphal tick stages, apparently a response to photoperiod, has survival value in that the subsequent stage after molt does not become an active host-seeker at a time unfavorable for its maximum survival.