Occurrence Of Preferential Flow Research Articles

Soil moisture dynamics and associated rainfall-runoff processes under different land uses and land covers in a humid mountainous watershed

Identifying soil moisture dynamics is critical for understanding watershed hydrological processes. Soil moisture responses to rainfall vary with land use and land covers (LULCs) and thus influence rainfall-runoff processes, however, the knowledge about how different LULCs affect such processes was less revealed, especially in humid areas. In this study, we investigated the characteristics of soil moisture content (SMC) and rainfall-related soil moisture responses under four typical LULCs, i.e., waxberry forest, farmland, sloping farmland, and bamboo forest, based on in-situ observations in a humid mountainous watershed. We then used the HYDRUS-1D model to analyze the patterns of the rainfall-infiltration processes and quantified corresponding runoff generation to reveal the partitioning between infiltration and runoff at the event scale. We found significant differences of the average SMC at multiple depths for four LULCs. The deep soil (80 cm) had the largest SMC for the waxberry forest, farmland, and sloping farmland, while the surface soil (10 cm) was the wettest soil layer for the bamboo forest. During the representative rainstorms, although soil moisture responses exhibited depth gradients, the earlier responses at some deep layers indicated the occurrence of preferential flow. Generally, the cumulative infiltration increased while the infiltration rate decreased with the rainfall grade. Farmland and bamboo forest showed the most and the least infiltration, respectively. These results suggested that both the rainfall properties and LULCs had a strong impact on the soil moisture responses. Meanwhile, the estimated average runoff coefficients of four typical LULCs increased with rainfall grade, and the sloping farmland generated the most runoff during the representative rainfall events. Our findings provide new insights into soil moisture dynamics and infiltration regimes under different LULCs in humid areas, which can contribute to hydrological modeling at the field-scale and regional water resource management.

Soil moisture observations and machine learning reveal preferential flow mechanisms in the Qilian Mountains

The complexity of the spatial distribution and temporal occurrence of preferential flow (PF) makes it challenging to understand the mechanisms of PF. This study aims to identify the spatial and temporal patterns of PF occurrence using machine learning (Classification and Regression Trees and Random Forests) in the Qilian Mountains, Northwest China. Our results show that detected PF events transport much more rainfall down to the subsoil than non-PF events. Different vegetation types exhibit variations in the main soil layers where PF occurs, which is closely related to the distribution of roots. The PF proportion varies significantly both vertically and horizontally. Based on the Random Forests, we found that the spatial distribution of the PF proportion is mainly controlled by the saturated hydraulic conductivity and residual soil moisture, which cannot be identified by conventional correlation analysis methods. With these soil properties, the spatial distribution of the PF proportion can be estimated with reasonable performance. Using the Classification and Regression Trees method, we identified the temporal occurrence pattern of the PF for different vegetation types and all observation stations. Results indicate that the dominant factors controlling the temporal occurrence of the PF varied for different vegetation types. The thresholds at which these factors initiate the PF also varied. Finally, we found that the PF occurs particularly under wet conditions (except for hydrophobic soils), under denser vegetation, and under conditions of high rainfall amount and intensity, regardless of vegetation type. Our study confirms that both site factors (e.g., soil properties and vegetation) and temporal factors (e.g., initial soil moisture and rainfall characteristics) control the occurrence of the PF in mountainous regions such as the Qilian Mountains and that the Classification and Regression Trees has great potential to study the temporal occurrence of the PF.

Dynamics and control mechanisms of inorganic nitrogen removal during wetting-drying cycles: A simulated managed aquifer recharge experiment

Managed aquifer recharge (MAR) systems can be operated intermittently through wetting-drying cycles to simultaneously improve the water supply and quality. Although MAR can naturally attenuate considerable amounts of nitrogen, the dynamic processes and control mechanisms of nitrogen removal by intermittent MAR remain unclear. This study was conducted in laboratory sandy columns and lasted for 23 d, including four wetting periods and three drying periods. The hydraulic conductivity, oxidation reduction potential (ORP), and leaching concentrations of ammonia nitrogen and nitrate nitrogen of MAR systems were intensively measured to test the hypothesis that hydrological and biogeochemical controls play an essential role in regulating nitrogen dynamics at different stages of wetting-drying cycles. Intermittent MAR functioned as a sink for nitrogen while providing a carbon source to support nitrogen transformations; however, it occasionally became a source of nitrogen under intense flushes of preferential flow. Nitrogen dynamics were primarily controlled by hydrological processes in the initial wetting phase and were further regulated by biogeochemical processes during the subsequent wetting period, supporting our hypothesis. We also observed that a saturated zone could mediate nitrogen dynamics by creating anaerobic conditions for denitrification and buffering the flush effect of preferential flow. The drying duration can also affect the occurrence of preferential flow and nitrogen transformations, which should be balanced when determining the optimal drying duration for intermittent MAR systems.

Analysis of Preferential Flow in Artificial Substrates with Sedum Roots for Green Roofs: Experiments and Modeling

The occurrence of preferential flow in vegetated artificial substrates can weaken the stormwater management performance of green roofs. To explore preferential flow, various plant–substrate combinations that involved two Sedum species (Sedum sarmentosum and Sedum lineare) and two artificial substrates for three depths of 6, 10, and 14 cm were established. Artificial substrates without plants were either perlite-based (namely, PAS) or vermiculite-based (namely, VAS), and they were also set as controls. Thereafter, solute breakthrough experiments were conducted, followed by inverse and forward modeling in Hydrus-1D. Skewness coefficients of all solute breakthrough curves were non-zero, suggesting a prevalence of preferential flow. The Nash–Sutcliffe efficiency coefficients during calibration and validation were greater than 0.7. The obtained hydraulic parameters were different among various vegetated PAS and pure PAS without plants, but appeared the same for the VAS case. Rainfall intensity, plant species, and substrate depth, and the interaction of plant species and substrate depth all had significant effects on PAS preferential flow outflow and index (PFI). Substrate depth had a significant effect on VAS preferential flow and PFI. Since a 10 cm-PAS with S. lineare had the smallest PFI of 43.16% in simulation scenarios, its use may better control preferential flow in green roofs.

Subsurface flow paths in a chronosequence of calcareous soils: impact of soil age and rainfall intensities on preferential flow occurrence

Abstract. Soil hydrologic processes play an important role in the hydro-pedo-geomorphological feedback cycle of landscape evolution. Soil properties and subsurface flow paths both change over time, but due to a lack of observations, subsurface water flow paths are often not properly represented in soil and landscape evolution models. We investigated the evolution of subsurface flow paths across a soil chronosequence in the calcareous glacier forefield at the Griessfirn glacier in the Swiss Alps. Young soils developed from calcareous parent material usually have a high pH value, which likely affects vegetation development and pedogenesis and thus the evolution of subsurface flow paths. We chose four glacial moraines of different ages (110, 160, 4 900, and 13 500 years) and conducted sprinkling experiments with the dye tracer Brilliant Blue on three plots at each moraine. Each plot was divided into three equal subplots, and dyed water was applied with three different irrigation intensities (20, 40, and 60 mm h−1) and an irrigation amount of 40 mm. Subsequent excavation of soil profiles enabled the tracing of subsurface flow paths. A change in flow types with increasing moraine age was observed from a rather homogeneous matrix flow at 110 and 160 years to heterogeneous matrix and finger-shaped flow at 4 900 and 13 500 years. However, the proportion of preferential flow paths is not necessarily directly related to the moraine age but rather to soil properties such as texture, soil layering, organic matter content, and vegetation characteristics such as root length density and biomass. Irrigation intensity had an effect on the number of finger-shaped flow paths at the two old moraines. We also found that flow paths in this calcareous material evolved differently compared to a previous study in siliceous material, which emphasizes the importance of parent material for flow path evolution. Our study provides a rare systematic dataset and observations on the evolution of vertical subsurface flow paths in calcareous soils, which is useful to improve their representation in the context of landscape evolution modeling.

Distribution pattern of rainwater in soil under vertical deep rotary tillage in dryland farmland

In semi-arid areas, drought is the main limiting factor for rainfed agriculture. Vertical rotary subsoiling (VRT) has been shown to effectively increase soil water storage and so allow crops to resist seasonal drought. However, there is a lack of reports on the infiltration path and distribution pattern of rainwater in soil under VRT practice. The present study used simulated rainfall and visualized the soil profile water distribution and path of VRT, subsoiling tillage (SS) and conventional tillage (CT) practices. Twenty-four hours after applying simulated rain, vertical soil profiles were photographed and staining features used to indicate the infiltration path and distribution of rainwater in the soil. Our results showed that when rainwater infiltrated into the soil, matrix and preferential flows occurred concomitantly under VRT practice, and mainly matrix flow for SS and CT practices. The VRT increased water infiltration into the soil, occurrence of preferential flow and water storage in the soil profile, while the soil of SS and CT somewhat hindered the infiltration of water. The VRT decreased soil bulk density (BD) by 9.2–10.3 % and increased soil saturated hydraulic conductivity (Ks) by 50.4–70.4 % compared with SS and CT. Moreover, VRT significantly increased potato tuber yield by 22.9–36.0 % compared with SS and CT in two consecutive years. Structural equation modeling (SEM) further revealed that VRT increased potato yield was mainly caused by decreasing BD and increasing Ks, and then increasing water storage in the soil profile. These findings suggest that decreased BD and increased Ks in VRT practice could be particularly important for infiltration, sustaining and supplying of soil water in rainfed areas worldwide, which is important for production practices in these areas.

Occurrence and controls of preferential flow in the upper stream of the Heihe River Basin, Northwest China

Preferential flow (PF) has a faster migration speed and is an important process affecting hydrological, geochemical and ecological cycles. However, the factors that control PF during infiltration are not fully understood, especially in the data-scarce high and cold mountainous areas, where few studies have been focused on PF. We selected eight soil moisture observation stations in the upper reaches of the Heihe River Basin (HRB), Northwest China. During the growing season from 2014 to 2019, the soil moisture was monitored every 30 min at 5 depths (5, 15, 25, 40, and 60 cm) at each station in order to analyze the occurrence and spatial–temporal control of PF in a cold, mountainous environment. According to the difference in response time of shallower and deeper soil moisture to rainfall, infiltration events were classified into PF and matrix flow. Our results show that the frequency of PF events across all layers of these stations ranged from 0 to 22.28%. As depth increased, the average PF frequency gradually decreased, but the coefficient of variation of PF frequency increased. The effect of vegetation on the occurrence of PF was profound, because vegetation affects root distribution and fauna activities, which affects the occurrence of PF. Our results also show that the frequency of PF gradually decreases from scrubland, to grassland and meadow, and barren land. Low bulk density, low residual water content, high saturated hydraulic conductivity, and high soil organic carbon were found to be conducive to the occurrence of PF. In addition, we found that PF possessed a high degree of seasonal variability because of its strong dependence on soil moisture, rainfall and vegetation conditions. High rainfall was conducive to PF occurrence. In areas with high sand content, low initial soil moisture was conducive to PF occurrence (likely due to hydrophobicity), whereas high initial soil moisture was conducive to PF occurrence in areas with low sand content. Overall, vegetation, soil properties, and water conditions seem to jointly affect the factors that occur in spatial–temporal of PF, and the influence of initial soil moisture on PF varies across different sand content. Findings of this study reveal the occurrence and control factors of PF, which will improve our understanding of water cycling related to the infiltration process, recharge process and the runoff generation process at hillslope over the cold mountainous areas.

UTILIZING STABLE WATER ISOTOPES (Δ2H AND Δ18O) TO STUDY SOIL-WATER ORIGIN IN SLOPED VINEYARD: FIRST RESULTS

The diversity of processes taking place in hillslope agro-ecosystems makes the estimation of vadose zone dynamics rather challenging. This paper presents the first insight into the research of volumetric water content, granulometric composition, meteorological data, precipitation and soil-water isotopic composition conducted within the SUPREHILL project at its vadose zone observatory. The main goals of this research are related to the evaluation of soil-water origin at the hillslope vineyard, but also to the estimation of depths until which precipitation infiltrates and where the occurrence of preferential flow is possible. For that purpose, hydrometeorological data, granulometric composition and stable isotopesof hydrogen (δ2H) and oxygen (δ18O) from precipitation and sampled soil water have been used. The results indicate the existence of a different isotopic signature in soil water, which suggests different infiltration patterns in the investigated area. Also, the results point out that surface runoff, subsurface runoff, and most of the passive wick lysimeters respond to precipitation, while the response of suction probes located at deeper depth is not that evident. This corresponds to the results related to the variation of water content at different depths. All the results indicate the possible existence of a low permeable layer at an approximate depth of 60 cm. Furthermore, preferential flow, if it exists, can be expected from the shallowest depths of the vineyard to a maximum depth of 80 cm. It is expected that an established long-term monitoring network at the SUPREHILL Observatory will give a more precise definition of soil-water behaviour and the existence of preferential flow.

Vertical variations and transport mechanism of soil moisture in response to vegetation restoration on the Loess Plateau of China

AbstractSoil moisture is essential for vegetation restoration in arid and semi‐arid regions. Ascertaining the vertical distribution and transportation of soil moisture under different vegetation types has a profound effect on the ecological construction. In this study, the soil moisture at a depth of 500 cm for four typical vegetation types, including Robinia pseudoacacia, Caragana korshinskii, Stipa bungeana, and corn, were investigated and compared in the Zhifanggou watershed of the Loess plateau. Additionally, hydrogen and oxygen stable isotopes were detected to identify the transport mechanism of soil moisture. The results showed vertical distribution and transportation of soil moisture were different under different vegetation types. Depth‐averaged soil moisture under S. bungeana and corn generally increased along the profile, while C. korshinskii and R. pseudoacacia showed weakly increasing and relatively stable after an obvious decreasing trend (0–40 cm). The soil moisture under R. pseudoacacia was lower than that under other vegetation types, especially in deep layer. However, the effect of R. pseudoacacia on soil moisture in the topsoil (< 30 cm) could be positive. For R. pseudoacacia (160–500 cm), C. korshinskii (0–500 cm), and S. bungeana (0–100 cm), the soil moisture declined with increased in vegetation age. Planting arbor species such as R. pseudoacacia intensified the decline of soil moisture on the Loess Plateau. The capacity of evaporation fractionation of soil moisture followed the sequence: corn > S. bungeana > R. pseudoacacia > C. korshinskii. The δ18O values in soil water fluctuated across the profile. The δ18O values changed sharply in upper layer and generally remained stable in deep layer. However, in middle layer, the vertical distribution characteristics of the δ18O values were different under different vegetation types. We estimated that piston flow was the main mode of precipitation infiltration, and the occurrence of preferential flow was related to vegetation types. These results were helpful to improve the understanding of the response of deep soil moisture to vegetation restoration and inform practices for sustainable water management.

Influence of alternated drying and wetting on the characteristics of soil preferential flow formation in Honghe Arid Valley.

To clarify the effects of alternation of drying and wetting on the formation of soil preferential flow in arid valley, taking the wasteland in the arid valley of Honghe River as the research object, we analyzed the soil preferential flow characteristics before and after the simulation of drying and wetting alternation based on dyeing tracer method, water breakthrough curve, and image processing technology. The results showed that, under the simulated alternation of drying and wetting, the matrix flow occurred in the 0-10 cm soil layer, the dyeing depth reached 35 cm, the horizontal width of the preferred path was only 3-10 cm, and the dyeing area curve fluctuated little. Simulated alternation of drying and wetting led to significant increases in the steady effluent, macropores number, and macroporosity. In the 0-20 cm soil layer, the steady effluent after alternation of drying and wetting was about 0.27 cm3·s-1 higher than that non-alternation of drying and wetting, macropores number in dyeing area was about 1.4 times higher, and the macroporosity was 13.4% higher. The macropores number was positively correlated with stable flow rate. After simulated alternation of drying and wetting, the number of macropores from large to small was 0.6-0.8 mm＞0.8-1.0 mm＞1.0-1.5 mm＞1.5-2.0 mm＞2.0-3.7 mm, while under non-alternation of drying and wetting, it was 0.8-1.0 mm＞0.6-0.8 mm＞1.0-1.5 mm＞2.0-3.7 mm＞1.5-2.0 mm. The macropores number in each pore size range was significantly correlated with the dyeing area ratio. After simulated alternation of drying and wetting, the correlation increased, and the dominant factor affecting the occurrence of preferential flow changed from the macropores number in the pore size range of 1.5-2.0 mm to that of 0.8-1.0 mm. Therefore, the alternation of drying and wetting would affect the characteristics of macropores, which caused the soil to be more prone to preferential flow and with higher magnitude.

Soil Water Dynamics Under Different Land Uses in Loess Hilly Region in China by Stable Isotopic Tracing

Exploring soil water dynamics under different land use types is important for water resource management and vegetation restoration in the Loess Plateau. In this study, we investigated the hydrogen and oxygen isotopic compositions of soil water from four different land use types to explore the mechanism of soil water movement and transformation and analyse the influence of land use. The results show that the range of stable isotopes (δD and δ18O) in soil water was smaller than that in precipitation. Values for δD and δ18O in soil water showed relatively similar temporal variation, heavy isotopes were enriched in the soil water in July and depleted in October. Stable isotope values in shallow (<100 cm depth) soil water and deep (>200 cm depth) soil water were low. The δD and δ18O values in woodlands decreased gradually with increasing depth. Across the four land use types, the maximum variation in δD and δ18O was in the shallow depth of the soil profile. Groundwater was recharged mainly from precipitation and then from soil water. The ratio of groundwater recharge by soil water under different land use types followed this rank order: woodland (35.70%) > grassland (31.14%) > shrubland (29.47%) > cropland (29.18%). Matrix flow and preferential flow coexisted during infiltration, and the occurrence of preferential flow was related to the land use type. The main reason for the variation in isotopic composition in soil water is the difference in soil evaporation, which is influenced by different vegetation cover. Owing to the difference in soil evaporation and fractionation, precipitation on cropland, shrubland, and grassland can recharge more soil water than on woodland.

On the controls of preferential flow in soils of different hillslope position and lithological origin

AbstractSoils derived from different lithologies and their controls on preferential flow remain underexplored in forested landscapes. In the same lithology, the propensity for preferential flow occurrence at different hillslope positions also remains largely elusive. By utilizing a soil moisture response time method, we compared preferential flow occurrence between a shale site (Shale Hills, silt loam soils) and a sandstone site (Garner Run, sandy loam soils) at four hillslope positions: ridge‐top, North‐ and South‐facing mid‐slopes and toe slope, for over 2 years. The catchments are neighbouring and covered by temperate forest. For the four hillslope positions, Shale Hills had higher preferential flow frequencies compared to Garner Run. Between these two catchments, the South‐facing mid‐slope sites showed the highest contrasts in preferential flow frequency (33.5% of events at Shale Hills vs. 8.8% at Garner Run) while the ridge‐top sites showed the lowest contrasts (18.7 vs. 13.2%). Additionally, over the unfrozen period, for seven out of eight monitoring sites, drier antecedent conditions tended to be more favourable for preferential flows to occur, with significant (p < .01) relationships at two sites. Except for the South‐facing mid‐slope sites, both Shale Hills and Garner Run had two preferential flow pathways. The characteristic preferential flow pathways at Shale Hills were the Bwand C horizons, and for Garner Run, preferential flow moved from the E/AE horizon to the Bwhorizon. This study shows that shale‐derived soils tended to have higher preferential flow occurrence than sandstone soils, but hillslope positions exhibit different levels of contrasts. More effort should be paid to study the impact of lithology on preferential flows in the context of land surface modelling and biogeochemical reactions to improve ecosystem services of headwater catchments.

Multitracer irrigation experiments for assessing the relevance of preferential flow for non-sorbing solute transport in agricultural soil

This study addresses the relevance of preferential flow for the transport of a non-sorbing solute in a sandy agricultural field with nitrate-contaminated groundwater. Two multitracer irrigation experiments were conducted 1) in October 2017, and 2) in March 2018 on a 2 m × 2 m plot on an agricultural field in Northern Germany (Cloppenburg region). For irrigation 1, Cl-, H218O, and 15NO3- were used as tracers, for irrigation 2, Br-, 2H2O, and 15NO3- were used as tracers. Between both irrigation events the study plot was subject to natural precipitation. The study plot was instrumented with soil moisture sensors and suction plates. The occurrence of preferential flow was studied based on the following data: (1) tracer breakthrough curves collected by five suction plates; (2) the spatial distribution of resident tracer concentrations in soil at the end of the experiment; and (3) 3D-time lapse electrical resistivity tomography (ERT) during both irrigation events. The spatial distribution of water residence times at the end of the experiment was calculated based on measured tracer concentrations in the soil and the known fingerprints of three sources of water (irrigation 1, rain and irrigation 2) applied to the plot. The relevance of preferential flow for the leaching of a non-sorbing solute was assessed by comparing the observed and Hydrus-1D-modeled cumulative leaching of Cl-.In comparison to the conservative tracers 1–11% of the applied 15NO3- was removed from soil solution most probably due to microbial processes. Continuous preferential flow paths were observed below the plow pan. The same preferential flow paths seem to be used repeatedly by the successive rain/irrigation events. However, the mobile-immobile regions appear to exist only for a short period of time, because fast matrix flow balances the spatial heterogeneity in tracer distribution. The residence time of soil water varied from 1 to 3 months at 40–50 cm depth and was not older than 4 months at 190–200 cm depth. Hydrus-1D transient model calculations predicted 13%-30% less leaching of a conservative tracer during wintertime compared to the experimentally estimated averaged leaching from our study plot. Therefore, our main result is that preferential flow, though responsible for a high spatial heterogeneity in leaching loads within study plot in our non-structured sandy soil, increased only slightly the averaged cumulative solute leaching during wintertime from the plot.

The relevance of preferential flow in catchment scale simulations: Calibrating a 3D dual‐permeability model using DREAM

AbstractThe occurrence of preferential flow in the subsurface has often been shown in field experiments. However, preferential flow is rarely included in models simulating the hydrological response at the catchment scale. If it is considered, preferential flow parameters are typically determined at the plot scale and then transferred to larger‐scale simulations. Here, we successfully used the optimization algorithm DiffeRential Evolution Adaptive Metropolis (DREAM) to calibrate a 3D physics‐based dual‐permeability model directly at the catchment scale. In order to keep computational costs of the optimization routine at a reasonable level, we limited the number of parameters to be calibrated to the ones that had been shown before to be most influential for the simulation of discharge. We also calibrated parameters of the matrix domain and the macropore domain with a fixed parameter ratio between soil layers instead of calibrating every layer separately. These ratios reflected observed depth profiles of soil hydraulic properties at our study site. The dual‐permeability parameter sets identified during calibration were able to simulate observed discharge time series satisfactorily but did not outperform a calibrated single‐domain reference model scenario. Saturated hydraulic conductivities of the macropore domain were calibrated such that they became very similar to matrix saturated hydraulic conductivities, thereby effectively removing the effect of macropores. This suggests that the incorporation of vertical preferential flow as represented by the dual‐permeability approach was not relevant for reproducing the hydrometric response reasonably well in the studied catchment. We also tested the scale‐invariance of the calibrated dual‐permeability parameter sets by using the parameter sets performing best at catchment scale to simulate plot‐scale bromide depth profiles obtained from tracer irrigation experiments. This parameter transfer proved to be not successful, indicating that soil hydraulic parameters are scale‐variant, independent of the direction of parameter transfer.

Effects of Deforestation on Water Flow in the Vadose Zone

The effects of land use change on the occurrence and frequency of preferential flow (fast water flow through a small fraction of the pore space) and piston flow (slower water flow through a large fraction of the pore space) are still not fully understood. In this study, we used a five year high resolution soil moisture monitoring dataset in combination with a response time analysis to identify factors that control preferential and piston flow before and after partial deforestation in a small headwater catchment. The sensor response times at 5, 20 and 50 cm depths were classified into one of four classes: (1) non-sequential preferential flow, (2) velocity based preferential flow, (3) sequential (piston) flow, and (4) no response. The results of this analysis showed that partial deforestation increased sequential flow occurrence and decreased the occurrence of no flow in the deforested area. Similar precipitation conditions (total precipitation) after deforestation caused more sequential flow in the deforested area, which was attributed to higher antecedent moisture conditions and the lack of interception. At the same time, an increase in preferential flow occurrence was also observed for events with identical total precipitation. However, as the events in the treatment period (after deforestation) generally had lower total, maximum, and mean precipitation, this effect was not observed in the overall occurrence of preferential flow. The results of this analysis demonstrate that the combination of a sensor response time analysis and a soil moisture dataset that includes pre- and post-deforestation conditions can offer new insights in preferential and sequential flow conditions after land use change.

Characterization of preferential flow in soils near Zarqa river (Jordan) using in situ tension infiltrometer measurements

BackgroundThe Zarqa River (ZR) is located in the northern part of Jordan and supplies King Talal Dam (KTD). The streamflow that discharges into KTD is composed of treated wastewater from the Khirbat Es-Samra water treatment plant (KTP) and runoff generated during the winter season. Thus, during the summer, the streamflow of the ZR is dominated by effluent from the KTP. Due to the severe scarcity of water in Jordan, a portion of the streamflow is utilized for irrigated agriculture in the ZR valley, located between the KTP and KTD. The groundwater in the vicinity of the ZR is vulnerable to contamination—a risk that may be exacerbated by the potential occurrence of preferential flow (PF). Therefore, the PF in the soils near the ZR should be carefully considered.MethodsThe macropore flux fraction (Qmacro) and macroscopic capillary length (λc) were determined from in situ measurements using a tension infiltrometer equipped with an infiltration disc with a diameter of 20 cm. The macropore was defined as the pore size that drains at a tension of less than —-3— cm. The λc less than 80 mm was considered to be an indication of PF. The measurements were taken at 69 sites along the ZR between the KTP and KTD. At each measurement site, the soil organic matter content (OM) and soil texture were determined using a composite soil sample obtained by excavating the soil beneath the infiltration disc to a depth of 10 cm.ResultsThe data was split into two groups: the matrix flow group (MF), which includes data associated with λc > 80 mm, and the PF group, which includes data associated with λc < 80 mm. The Qmacro values of 0.67 and 0.57, respectively, for PF and MF were significantly different at p < 0.01 (t-test). The flow rates at h=0 were generally well associated with λc, as attested to by a significant difference between the averages of PF (57.8 mm/hr) and MF (21.0 mm/hr) at p < 0.01 (t-test). The OM was positively associated with PF. This was statistically confirmed by a t-test at p < 0.01. The average sand and clay contents of PF and MF were not statistically different. Analysis of the ratio of Soil Organic Carbon (SOC) to clay showed that the average SOC/clay of the PF (14%) was larger than that of the MF (13.3%). After the exclusion of soils with clay content less than 8%, the differences between the SOC/clay averages of PF (9.8%) and MF (7.5%) were significant at p < 0.05, as shown by a WM-test.ConclusionThe OM was positively associated with PF. Soil texture—and clay content in particular—influenced the λcvalues. However, the association of clay content with PF was not statistically significant. Consideration of the SOC/clay ratio showed that the tendency toward PF increases as the complexation of the clay content increases. This was most obvious in soils with a clay content of greater than 8% and SOC/clay of approximately 10%. The OM either influences or is inter-correlated with the processes responsible for the formation of macropores.

High-frequency monitoring of the occurrence of preferential flow on hillslopes and its relationship with rainfall features, soil moisture and landscape

ABSTRACTHigh-frequency monitoring was conducted to quantify the frequency and controlling factors of preferential flow (PF) in a monsoon-influenced sub-humid mountainous catchment (6.48 km2) of Northern China. Rainfall was measured using nine bucket raingauges. Soil moisture probes were set up at 12 sites to observe the PF. Overall, 129 rainfall events were identified during the years 2014–2016. The average PF occurrence was 41%, which increased to 71% during heavy rainfall events (>20 mm) revealing a strong influence of the amount and intensity of rainfall. The study also revealed that the PF increased with antecedent soil moisture. Soil moisture was much higher on flat sites compared to sloping sites, providing evidence that the topography has a strong influence on rainfall infiltration and runoff which, subsequently, influence soil moisture variation and the occurrence of PF. Our findings provide valuable insights into the hydrological processes for studies in regions with similar environmental conditions.

Dynamic response patterns of profile soil moisture wetting events under different land covers in the Mountainous area of the Heihe River Watershed, Northwest China

Understanding the dynamic response of soil moisture to rainfall is critical for hydrological modelling in arid and semi-arid basins. However, little is known about rainfall-related soil moisture dynamics in arid high-altitude mountainous areas due to the absence of long-term high-resolution soil moisture observations. In this study, we investigated the dynamic response processes of profile soil moisture using data from a soil moisture monitoring network in the Qilian Mountains established in 2013 covering altitudes from 2,000–5,000 m a.s.l. To investigate the effects of different land covers on soil moisture response, we selected data from eight soil moisture stations with the same soil textural class and slope, but different land covers (scrubland, meadow, high coverage grassland (HCG), medium coverage grassland (MCG) and barren land). Several indices were evaluated to quantitatively describe soil moisture dynamics during the growing seasons of 2014–2016 based on soil wetting events. In addition, HYDRUS-1D simulations were used to further analyze the effect of land cover on soil moisture dynamics. Our results showed that soil moisture response amplitudes along profile are similar under MCG and barren land, but significantly different under scrubland, meadow and HCG. The rate of soil moisture increment decreased significantly with depth for all land covers, except for the HCG. The temporal pattern of soil moisture increase was highly variable along the soil profiles depending on land cover type. In particular, the difference of response time between the adjacent layers varied from negative values to 280 h with depth. Preferential flow occurred mostly in soils covered by scrubland. Water transferability was higher in deeply rooted soil. Furthermore, sensitivity analysis indicated that soil hydraulic properties are key factors in regulating profile soil wetting events. Our results show that the soil moisture response indices are useful to quantitatively characterize patterns in profile soil moisture dynamics, and provide new insights into the soil moisture profile wetting process (e.g. occurrence of preferential flow etc.), which helps for effective model parameterization and validation, in turn improving hydrological modelling in arid high-altitude mountainous areas.

Predicting the Fate of Preferentially Moving Herbicides

Core Ideas A simple multiregion model predicts herbicide transport well using tracer data. A chloride tracer is used to characterize the preferential flow paths. A surface layer in the model distributes water and solutes to the preferential pathways. Simulation of preferential flow remains a challenge despite being a recognized phenomenon. With short‐interval data, we adapted and tested the preferential flow model (PFM) to simulate the vertical transport of herbicides to lower soil layers. The PFM divides the soil profile into a top distribution zone and a conveyance zone below. The distribution zone acts as a reservoir, with an exponential loss of solutes to the conveyance zone. In the conveyance zone, water and solutes move as convective–dispersive flow through multiple flow paths—preferential and matrix—to shallow groundwater. Our field experiment was performed on a structured Hudson silty clay loam soil (a fine, illitic, mesic Glossaquic Hapludalf) that exhibits preferential flow. The site was instrumented with a variety of soil water samplers placed at depths of 60 cm to monitor the volume and quality of the leachate. Agronomic application of atrazine [6‐chloro‐N‐ethyl‐N′‐(1‐methylethyl)‐1,3,5‐triazine‐2,4‐diamine] and 2,4‐D [2‐(2,4‐dichlorophenoxy)acetic acid] was used, followed by 75 cm of controlled and natural rainfall over 100 d. In addition, Cl− was applied as a conservative tracer. All samplers monitored during this period showed a fast breakthrough of solutes consistent with the occurrence of preferential flow, with two groups of breakthrough curves observed. By fitting the Cl− breakthrough curve for each group, PFM input parameters were estimated including water velocity in preferential flow paths and the fraction of water moving through each flow path. With two additional parameters for herbicide adsorption and degradation rates, the model successfully simulated the extent of preferential flow of herbicides.

Preferential flows and soil moistures on a Benggang slope: Determined by the water and temperature co-monitoring

Soil preferential flow (PF) has important effects on rainfall infiltration, moisture distribution, and hydrological and ecological process; but it is very difficult to monitor and characterize on a slope. In this paper, soil water and soil temperature at 20, 40, 60, 80cm depths in six positions were simultaneously monitored at high frequency to confirm the occurrence of PF at a typical Benggang slope underlain granite residual deposits, and to determine the interaction of soil moisture distribution and Benggang erosion. In the presence of PF, the soil temperature was first (half to one hour) governed by the rainwater temperature, then (more than one hour) governed by the upper soil temperature; in the absence of PF (only matrix flow, MF), the soil temperature was initially governed by the upper soil temperature, then by the rainwater temperature. The results confirmed the water replacement phenomenon in MF, thus it can be distinguished from PF by additional temperature monitoring. It indicates that high frequency moisture and temperature monitoring can determine the occurrence of PF and reveal the soil water movement. The distribution of soil water content and PF on the different positions of the slope showed that a higher frequency of PF resulted in a higher variation of average of water content. The frequency of PF at the lower position can be three times as that of the upper position, therefore, the variation coefficient of soil water content increased from 4.67% to 12.68% at the upper position to 8.18%–33.12% at the lower position, where the Benggang erosion (soil collapse) was more possible. The results suggest strong relationships between PF, soil water variation, and collapse activation near the Benggang wall.