Occupational Episodes Research Articles

Settling the argument: The contribution of use-wear studies to understanding artefact scatters in Neolithic Britain

Our understanding of the Neolithic of southern Britain has been largely based on the interpretation of monumental landscapes such as those around Stonehenge and Avebury. The remains of domestic structures dating to the Neolithic are rare, and when found, are often associated with small assemblages of material culture. The most common forms of settlement evidence are unstratified artefact scatters, which have little evidence of associated structural remains. As a result, our understanding of Neolithic settlement is poor. We have limited knowledge of what craft and subsistence activities were associated with them, and we do not know how quotidian practices were organised at a settlement or landscape level.Taking the West Kennet Avenue Occupation Site as an example, this paper will show how use-wear analysis can be combined with a detailed technological analysis to reveal details of the character and temporality of a Neolithic settlement. The use-wear analysis will focus on the assemblage of microdenticulates from the site. It further explores the character and potential contact material related to Polish 23, the distinctive use-polish that occurs on these tools, and shows how the combination of spatial analysis and use-wear analysis can separate different episodes of occupation in a scatter of unstratified artefacts. The results provide crucial insight into the history of settlement in the Avebury landscape and shed further light on the character of use of microdenticulates, supporting the argument that they were used for processing plant fibres for the production of textiles.

Rethinking Occupation Intensity during the Levantine Middle Epipalaeolithic: The use of Space and Site Formation Processes at the Geometric Kebaran site of Neve David, Israel

The open-air Epipalaeolithic (Geometric Kebaran) site of Neve David (Mount Carmel, Israel) has played an important role in reconstructing scenarios of sedentarization in the Levant since its initial excavation in the 1980s, and has been seen as heralding later Natufian socioeconomic adaptations. However, little was known about the site’s formation processes and spatial organization, hindering the testing of this view. Employing new field data from Neve David, we present a combined macro- and microscopic analyses of the spatial and temporal distribution of lithics, faunal remains, phytoliths and wood ash, interpreted with the aid of ethnoarchaeological data and comparison to other Palaeolithic sites in the region. Post-depositional disturbance seems to be minimal at Neve David and we therefore suggest that the spatial distribution of the finds mostly represents human use of space. Throughout the thick sequence of occupation episodes, distinct division of space and well-preserved trampled occupation surfaces are generally lacking. We suggest that this pattern represents reduced mobility, as prolonged human activity blurs the primary depositional signal of the activity remains. The density of the finds generally increases in the upper layers of the site. Accordingly, we hypothesize that at the beginning of activity, the duration of occupation was longer and only later in the sequence of events was there an increase in group size. Our findings further highlight the position of the Geometric Kebaran as a pivotal stage in understanding the gap between the preceding highly mobile societies and the succeeding sedentary and demographically-larger Natufian societies.

Through Time: Reconstructing Palaeolithic Occupations Through Use-Wear Analysis in the Middle Palaeolithic Site of Ciota Ciara (Borgosesia, Italy)

Lithic use-wear analysis, through defining site function and allowing reconstructing of patterns of human occupation, can contribute to our understanding of archaeological palimpsests. The Ciota Ciara cave represents an excellent case study for this methodology. Multidisciplinary research so far conducted on the materials recovered from the atrial sector of the cave distinguishes three archaeological units from a Middle Palaeolithic occupation of the site: stratigraphic units (SUs) 13, 14, and 15. Each unit is interpreted as referring to a period of numerous, superimposed episodes of human occupation, the characteristics of which we try to reconstruct and present in this work through use-wear studies. The functional analysis of lithic industries from the upper units (13 and 14) has already been published previously; here, we report corresponding new data from the lowest level, SU 15. By comparing the use-wear results from the three units and integrating the findings with data from the geoarchaeological, palaeontological, zooarchaeological, and technological studies, we attempt to reconstruct the different phases of human occupation represented in the site through time, contributing to current interpretations regarding settlement dynamics and human behaviour in the Middle Palaeolithic of north-western Italy.

Alternation between humans and carnivores in the occupations of the Mousterian site of Sopeña rock-shelter (Asturias, Spain)

The Sopeña rock-shelter is a Palaeolithic site located in the northern slopes of the Cantabrian mountain range of northern Spain, facing the Bay of Biscay, in the Principality of Asturias. The shelter overlooks the Güeña River, which is a tributary to the Sella River. Excavations there yielded a long stratigraphic and archaeological sequence of episodes of human occupation, ranging from the later millennia of the Middle Palaeolithic -until the local disappearance of Neanderthals c. 42,630 ± 600 years ago, to the initial stages of the Upper Palaeolithic, which marks the local arrival of modern Homo sapiens sapiens, and an important Gravettian sequence. All the Sopeña levels yielded important accumulations of both lithic and faunal remains. The Mousterian appears, from top to bottom, in Sopeña levels XII, XIII, XIV, XV and XVI. Our study of the animal remains shows that at Level XV Neanderthal activity is very intense and responsible for the accumulation and modification of most of the bone remains (Yravedra et al., under review), while, as described below, this is not the case for levels XII, XIII and XIV, where carnivores were more involved in the accumulation and modification of animal remains. In this paper, we analyze the alternation between human and carnivore activity in the formation of the bone assemblages in the later Mousterian levels of Sopeña, on the eve of the arrival of anatomically modern humans in the Cantabrian region c. 40.000 years ago.

Taphonomic data from the transitional Aurignacian of El Castillo cave (Spain) reveals the role of carnivores at the Aurignacian Delta level

Palaeolithic sites are complex palimpsests due to the recurrent presence of human groups and carnivores through time, as documented in several European caves and rock shelters. Within these contexts, it can be challenging to identify the main contributors to bone accumulations and interpret human subsistence strategies and the role of carnivores. Consequently, taphonomic analyses are crucial for distinguishing the origins of these occupation episodes. One example of alternating occupations is found at El Castillo cave (Cantabria, Spain), specifically in the so-called Transitional Aurignacian level (∼46-42 ka uncal BP). According to a recent study conducted at this level (Luret et al., 2020), the human groups had a hunting specialisation focused on red deer, while carnivores had little influence on the assemblage. However, these interpretations were based only on the faunal assemblage from the recent excavations (1980–2011). A previous excavation phase was conducted on this site from 1910 to 1914, and after that, the faunal remains recovered were separated across several institutions, lacking a complete archaeozoological and taphonomic analysis of the whole level. In this work, a new taxonomic assessment and, for the first time, a taphonomic study of the macrofauna recovered in the Aurignacian Delta level during the initial excavations, stored at Museo Nacional y Centro de Investigación de Altamira (Cantabria, Spain), is carried out. This work provides new information about the human and carnivore groups that occupied El Castillo, constructing new hypotheses to interpret this relevant archaeological level.

Unraveling Early Holocene occupation patterns at El Arenal de la Virgen (Alicante, Spain) open-air site: an integrated palimpsest analysis

Palimpsests are ubiquitous in the open-air archaeological record. Yet, integrated intra-site research strategies of palimpsest dissection to infer occupational histories, spatial behavioural patterns and site formation processes remain scarce in the postglacial archaeology. In this work, we apply an integrated protocol of palimpsest analysis to the Mesolithic Unit IV of El Arenal de la Virgen site, radiocarbon dated in two different occupation phases (9.3–9.1 k and 8.6–8.3 k cal BP). While the archaeostratigraphic analysis identified the absence of sterile layers between both phases, the lithic refits confirmed the good preservation of the spatial properties of the assemblage. Using different point pattern analysis and geostatistical techniques, we further investigate the overall distribution pattern, the spatial correlation between lithic remains and occupation features according to different artefact categories, and the variability of spatial autocorrelation in the frequency of burnt microdebris. Our results suggest a behavioural pattern of different, and spatially recurrent, short-term camp occupation episodes. Built on explicit quantitative and reproducible standards, our research approach can be applied to other open-air sites to conduct comparative studies on open-air occupation patterns. This study underscores the importance of considering the palimpsest as an analytical unit and the need for assessing assemblage integrity and site formation processes through multidisciplinary approaches, to better characterise site occupation dynamics.

The Excavation of Gua Harimau's Western Gallery: A Contribution to the Terminal Pleistocene-Early Holocene archaeological records in Sumatra

Gua Harimau (gua=cave) is a crucial site for understand the prehistory of Sumatra and its relationship to the peopling of Insular Southeast Asia. A large number of archaeological records has been discovered at the western part of the cave, including human burials, lithic artefacts, potteries, and faunal remains that have been anthropogenically altered. The chronological stratigraphy of these records extends to the Late Pleistocene Period, enabling us to reconstruct the dynamics of prehistoric culture in Sumatra. At least three episodes of human occupation have been recognized in the cave: The Preneolithic, Neolithic, and Paleometalic (early metal age). However, the distributional pattern of various archaeological remains, such as mollusk shells, ground tools, unifacially-shaped pebble tools, and bone artefacts, reveals significant differences. These differences provide insight into the cultural development that occurred in Sumatra during the prehistoric occupation of Gua Harimau, and demonstrate changes in cultural affinity that may correspond to past environmental conditions and human adaptation.

Mesolithic hearth-pits and formation processes: a geoarchaeological investigation of sediments from El Arenal de la Virgen site (SE Iberia)

Hearth-pits are some of the most common archaeological features documented in open-air Mesolithic sites, especially in coversand areas of NW Europe. However, very few geoarchaeological studies have addressed their formation, function and relationship with occupation surfaces. This work introduces new interdisciplinary investigations on the sediments of the Mesolithic open-air site of El Arenal de la Virgen (SE Iberia). A selection of five hearth-pits from two different occupation phases (Phase 1: 9.3–9.1 cal ka BP and Phase 2: 8.6–8.3 cal ka BP) has been analysed using stratigraphy, texture, soil chemistry, micromorphology, petrography and OSL and TL analyses. Combustion traits of the carbonate rock assemblages preserved in the sediments of the hearth-pits have also been investigated and compared to reference and experimental data from local geogenic materials. Our results allowed us to discuss the anthropogenic origin and taphonomy of the hearth-pits studied and approach their function. The structures from Phase 1 are interpreted as a possible oven and a dumping feature linked to single/occasional use events. In contrast, for hearth-pits from Phase 2, we propose they were related to combustion and dwelling areas subject to recurrent occupation episodes and disturbance. Finally, our sedimentary and soil data revealed existing favourable paleoenvironmental conditions during the Mesolithic occupation of the site characterized by increased moisture, temperature and vegetation cover, in contrast to the Pleistocene and Middle Holocene periods pre- and post-dating the human settlement. This work highlights the potential of integrating geoarchaeological and contextual evidence to clarify the factors involved in the formation of hearth-pits and infer intra-site occupation patterns.

Spatial analysis of an Early Middle Palaeolithic kill/butchering site: the case of the Cuesta de la Bajada (Teruel, Spain)

Kill/butchering sites are some of the most important places for understanding the subsistence strategies of hunter-gatherer groups. However, these sites are not common in the archaeological record, and they have not been sufficiently analysed in order to know all their possible variability for ancient periods of the human evolution. In the present study, we have carried out the spatial analysis of the Early Middle Palaeolithic (MIS 9–8) site of Cuesta de la Bajada site (Teruel, Spain), which has been previously identified as a kill/butchering site through the taphonomic analysis of the faunal remains. Our results show that the spatial properties of the faunal and lithic tools distribution in levels CB2 and CB3 are well-preserved although the site is an open-air location. Both levels show a similar segregated (i.e. regular) spatial point pattern (SPP) which is different from the SPP identified at other sites with similar nature from the ethnographic and the archaeological records. However, although the archaeological materials have a regular distribution pattern, the lithic and faunal remains are positively associated, which is indicating that most parts of both types of materials were accumulated during the same occupation episodes, which were probably sporadic and focused on getting only few animal carcasses at a time.

Phosphate Record in Pleistocene-Holocene Sediments from Denisova Cave: Formation Mechanisms and Archaeological Implications

The distribution of authigenic phosphates in the sedimentary sequence of prehistoric Denisova Cave (Altai, South Siberia) has important archeological implications. The sampled Late Pleistocene–Early Holocene sedimentary sequence in the East Chamber of the cave consists of argilo-sandy-phosphatic sediments intercalated with guano layers of insectivorous bats. The sediments bear partially degraded N-rich organic matter (OM); chitin fragments enriched in S, P, Zn, and Cu; and a set of phosphates. The guano layers record at least three prolonged episodes of cave occupation by colonies of insectivorous bats between 10 kyr and 5 kyr BP, after people had left the cave or visited it rarely in small groups. The formation of phosphates follows the OM biodegradation pathways, with acidic leaching and gradual neutralization of P-rich solutions. The depth profile of authigenic phosphates shows a suite of mineral assemblages that mark a trend from acidic to slightly alkaline pH conditions of guano degradation (from top to bottom): ardealite, taranakite, and leucophosphite corresponding to acidic environments; whitlockite, brushite, and hydroxylapatite, which are stable under slightly acidic and neutral conditions; and hydroxylapatite in coexistence with calcite and stable at the bottom of the leaching profile under alkaline conditions. Authigenic phosphates can be used as reliable indicators of human non-occupation (abandonment) periods of Denisova Cave. Acidic leaching is responsible for disturbance and/or elimination of archaeological and paleontological materials in Late Pleistocene–Early Holocene sediments that were exposed to at least three “acidic waves”.

Ранние стадии верхнего палеолита бассейна Селенги: вариабельность каменной технологии, жизнеобеспечение и поселенческие системы

Northern Mongolia and southwest Transbaikalia, encompassing the Selenga River Basin, constitute the geographical core of the earliest known Initial Upper Paleolithic (IUP) laminar industries. Comparison of the broad spectrum of criteria presented here allows reconstructing variability within these IUP industries, determining regional traits in settlement systems, and the character of population mobility. Workshops were the main site-type identified, visible as several short-term occupational episodes. One of our foci is illuminating the role of the Selenga River Valley and its tributaries as the principal migration corridors for population diffusion in the Upper Paleolithic. Although some unique regional features are apparent, the technology and typology of the lithic industries demonstrate great similarity. We suggest that the cumulative evidence indicates the recent divergence of Mongolian and Transbaikalian IUP populations stemming from a common ancestral group of humans.

Return to Kadakol: new research on Site 1 (LTI019) in the Letti Basin (Sudan)

Early comparative research on the material from the site of Kadakol 1 in the Letti Basin (Sudan), which was surveyed in the late 1960s, suggested an association with the Kerma Culture horizon while not excluding multicultural occupation. Investigations, which were resumed in 2022 within the frame of a new research project exploring the significance of the Middle Nile Valley in prehistoric times, have yielded data confirming the early findingsand contributing information on younger occupational episodes from Napatan and Christian times, in both cases attested by extensive burial grounds.

Geoarchaeology, Age and Chronology of the Zhokhov Site

The Zhokhov site, investigated in 1989–1990 and 2000–2005, is located at 76°N in a remote part of the East Siberian Arctic. Excavations yielded tens of thousands of artifacts and faunal remains including the oldest anthropological remains known in the high arctic regions up to date. The culture-bearing deposits appear to represent the backfill of ice wedge casts formed after the site was abandoned when the island area became isolated due to the development of the post-glacial marine transgression. A large sample of radiocarbon ages obtained on various materials (n = 102) provides a chronology for the site, which was occupied 8300–7800 14С years ago. There were multiple occupation episodes, but it is not possible to estimate their duration with precision (within less than 50–100 years). The most intense human activity occurred within the interval 8050–7900 radiocarbon years BP, or ca. 9000 calBP but overall human occupation of the site spans roughly 2000 years. This is the oldest known archaeological site in the high-latitude Arctic. The identification and analysis of habitation episodes at the Zhokhov site has important implications for the study of Palaeolithic sites. The radiocarbon chronology indicates that repeated / cyclic human habitation at the same place is possible for up to 2000 years and possibly longer. Repeated or cyclic human occupation in the Zhokhov island area was possible due to locally available food and material resources. Thus, the radiocarbon dates provide more than chronomentric or chronological data; they are a source of information source about human ecology and its role in the evolution of culture.

Spatio-temporal variability of topoclimates and local palaeoenvironments in the Upper Dniester River Valley: Insights from the Middle and Upper Palaeolithic key-sites of the Halych region (western Ukraine)

The lowest section of the Upper Dniester River Valley (DRV), located between the uplands of Opillia and Eastern Subcarpathians, was a separate and specific Pleistocene geoecosystem, interesting for the hunter-gatherer communities. This is evidenced by three main (Yezupil, Mariampil and Halych), and a dozen or so additional Palaeolithic open-air sites. They occur as cultural layers within the loess-palaeosol sequences (LPSs) and represent semi-permanent settlement (except for the periods with the maximum intensity of the loess sedimentation); the oldest occur in the Eemian palaeosol. All sites are located on both sides of the river. In the past, the DRV was characterized by local environmental diversity changing with time. In consequence, it has very individual features, so the analysis of environmental changes is a local case study. In order to obtain information about the changes of climate and environment, the multi-proxy analyses were carried out. Chronology was based on the luminescence and radiocarbon dating. The diversity of habitats was local. Its degree was changing with time: it was minimal in the periods with extreme climatic conditions, such as the climate optimum and pessimum, and clearly greater in the climatically intermediate periods with fluctuations. Based on the materials indicating the mesoclimate and local vegetation diversity during the human occupation episodes as well as the location of the Palaeolithic sites, we found that generally the possibilities of choosing a warmer or sheltered place for a camp were not significant for hunters representing different cultures of different ages. Palaeolithic groups very often occupied the same places in the DRV. The camps had a hunting function, the choice of places was dictated primarily by the need to find a good place to observe game animals and to organize hunting – first of all – in the mouth sections of the tributaries of the Dniester River, regardless of the situation of localities relative to riverplains. The settlement attractiveness of such places was essentially timeless.

Refining the Chronology and Occupation Dynamics of the Mound Villages of South-Eastern Acre, Brazil

This paper summarises recent test excavations at five Mound Village sites in the south-eastern sector of Acre state, Brazil, including Caboquinho, Boa Esperança, Tocantins, Dos Circulos IV and V. Radiocarbon dates obtained from the excavation of this site refine the chronology of this archaeological tradition. To improve the chronologies of the mound villages in Acre for which radiocarbon dates were available, we modelled them using Bayesian statistics. We conducted the analysis in ChronoModel, which is better suited for regional models. Bayesian modelling of new radiocarbon dates from basal contexts of nine sites in the region establish the beginning of this archaeological tradition at ~ AD 952-1216. Nine dates from ten construction phases at the Caboquinho site establish the longest sequence from ~ AD 1169-1309 to colonial times. The stratigraphy of the test units reported in this study confirms previous results indicating that mounds are the result of alternating construction and occupation episodes. Dates from the Dos Circulos IV Rectangular Mound Village ~ AD 1367-1451 indicates that Rectangular Villages are broadly contemporaneous with Circular Mound Villages. Single dates from three superimposed villages at Dos Circulos V suggest the succession of village construction. Overall, these preliminary results make a contribution to a better understanding of the timing of emergence and demise of Mound Village construction.

Late Pleistocene Paleoenvironments and Episodic Human Occupations in the Orkhon Valley of Central Mongolia

Here, we present initial results of a new course of research being carried out at the Moiltyn-am, Orkhon-1, and Orkhon-7 Paleolithic sites in the Orkhon River Valley, central Mongolia. Our research focuses on the Moiltyn-am site, which preserves a cultural and chronological sequence from the Final Middle to the Late Upper Paleolithic. Results from analyses of rare earth elements, Strontium (Sr) isotopes, and faunal assemblages are correlated with data on paleoenvironmental conditions in the region during MIS-3 and MIS-2. Our conclusions are based in part upon post- depositional changes detectable in archaeological material from cultural layers at the Moiltyn-am site revealed through convergent analyses of stratigraphy, sedimentology, planigraphy, and the comparison of Sr isotopes in sediments and osteological remains. XRF-derived geochemical data from the Moiltyn-am sedimentary sequence yields evidence of past climatic conditions. We correlated these data with human occupational episodes in the Orkhon Valley during the Middle and Upper Paleolithic, and the results are analyzed in the context of extant paleoenvironmental information from northern Mongolia. Our results indicate a relatively humid climate prevailed during MIS-3, followed by a period of aridification, and the redeposition of sediments at Moiltyn-am. Faunal analysis reveals that Bos sp. and equids were the principal prey species for humans in the Final Middle to Initial Upper Paleolithic, supplemented by members of the Caprinae during the Early Upper Paleolithic. A complex mammoth fauna inhabited forest-steppe and steppe landscapes in the Khangai Mountains during MIS-3 and MIS-2.

Ritual stone‐built architecture and shell midden foundation: A semisubterranean structure in hyperarid Atacama Desert coast, Northern Chile

AbstractHunter‐gatherer architectural practices are one of the main sources of data to understand the complex land use of these societies. In the hyperarid Atacama Desert coast (Northern Chile), hunter‐gatherers‐fishers developed standardized stone‐built architecture during the Late Archaic period (∼5,700–4,000 cal years BP), interpreted so far as sedentary villages or long‐term campsites. Nevertheless, the lack of site formation process studies and systematic chronostratigraphies defy such functional interpretations. To address these issues, we reconstruct the lifecycle of a recently discovered semisubterranean structure at the Zapatero site (~25°S, Taltal). Combining stratigraphy, micromorphology, faunal and lithic analysis, as well as radiocarbon dating, we evidence a broad sequence involving different processes: shell midden formation; a stone‐structure; a prepared burial pit; a burning event; a short‐term occupational episode; and the entombment of the structure. We interpret this sequence as ritualized actions related to commemorative and place‐making activities. Our work stresses the need for new research programs at the Atacama Desert coast, based on geoarchaeological approaches, to understand hunter‐gatherer‐fisher middening and architectural practices from the very materiality involved in stratigraphy‐making processes.

Analysis of stratigraphical sequences at Cocina Cave (Spain) using rare earth elements geochemistry

This study investigates the stratigraphical sequence of Cocina Cave (Spain) employing and testing for the first time the capability of rare earth elements as markers of human activities in caves. Located in Dos Aguas (Valencian Community, Spain), Cocina Cave is characterized by the presence of several Holocene archaeological deposits from the final Mesolithic to the present day and is a pivotal site for understanding the socio‐ecological dynamics of the last hunter‐gatherer inhabitants of the Iberian Peninsula and the transition to pastoral and agricultural economies in the Western Mediterranean. However, the identification of strata from particular time‐periods in the cave is often difficult due to the homogeneity of layers, the poor archaeological record in some strata and the presence of severe disturbance phenomena. The methodological approach of this study consisted of cross‐referencing rare earth elements and other chemical markers with the archaeological stratigraphical interpretation, in an attempt to not only support the identification of the anthropic contribution to the formation of Cocina Cave strata, but also to characterize and confirm different natural and occupational episodes, particularly those associated with hunter‐gatherer, early agriculturalist, and shepherd activities. Sediments were collected from different excavation areas and analysed for major elements, trace elements, rare earth elements (REE), soil organic matter (SOM) amounts and pH. Multivariate statistics were employed to group samples according to their elemental profile, and these were then compared to the archaeological temporal interpretation. The obtained results showed that REE amount and fractionation geochemical processes were regulated by carbonates, phosphates and pH. The use of REE as markers was particularly useful as their concentrations and their calculated ratios and anomaly distributions were demonstrated to be highly consistent with the archaeological stratigraphical interpretation.

MATERIALS FROM RESEARCH OF O. G. SHAPOSHNIKOVA AND D. YA. TELEHIN IN THE STAROBILSK DISTRICT, LUHANSK REGION

MATERIALS FROM RESEARCH OF O. G. SHAPOSHNIKOVA AND D. YA. TELEHIN IN THE STAROBILSK DISTRICT, LUHANSK REGION

Object-Based Image Analysis of Ground-Penetrating Radar Data for Archaic Hearths

Object-based image analysis (OBIA) has been increasingly used to identify terrain features of archaeological sites, but only recently to extract subsurface archaeological features from geophysical data. In this study, we use a semi-automated OBIA to identify Archaic (8000–1000 BC) hearths from Ground-Penetrating Radar (GPR) data collected at David Crockett Birthplace State Park in eastern Tennessee in the southeastern United States. The data were preprocessed using GPR-SLICE, Surfer, and Archaeofusion software, and amplitude depth slices were selected that contained anomalies ranging from 0.80 to 1.20 m below surface (BS). Next, the data were segmented within ESRI ArcMap GIS software using a global threshold and, after vectorization, classified using four attributes: area, perimeter, length-to-width ratio, and Circularity Index. The user-defined parameters were based on an excavated Archaic circular hearth found at a depth greater than one meter, which consisted of fire-cracked rock and had a diameter greater than one meter. These observations were in agreement with previous excavations of hearths at the site. Features that had a high probability of being Archaic hearths were further delineated by human interpretation from radargrams and then ground-truthed by auger testing. The semi-automated OBIA successfully predicted 15 probable Archaic hearths at depths ranging from 0.85 to 1.20 m BS. Observable spatial clustering of hearths may indicate episodes of seasonal occupation by small mobile groups during the Archaic Period.