Occupation Zone Research Articles

Legitimising Occupation: The Quest for Popular Consent during the British Occupation of Germany, 1945–1949

This article explores the quest for legitimacy and popular consent during the British occupation of north-western Germany between 1945 and 1949. It does so through an analysis of two major propaganda campaigns that sought to publicly legitimise the British occupation at home and in Germany: ‘Germany under Control’, a large-scale exhibition put on display in London in 1946; and ‘Operation Stress’, the largest propaganda campaign in the British Zone, run in 1948 to legitimise food policies. Through an investigation of the internal rationale amongst British policymakers, the objectives behind the campaigns, the popular reception, and the broader outcomes, the article shows that both campaigns ended in failure and did not succeed in convincing the population of the need to maintain British rule in Germany. Propaganda was an ineffective tool to generate popular legitimacy at a time of austerity at home and severe material suffering in the British zone of occupation. As such, the British authorities encountered populations whose ‘moral economy’ and expectations from government were fundamentally opposed to the maintenance of the occupation. Both campaigns, therefore, epitomise the pitfalls of propaganda campaigns when facing bitter social realities and demonstrate the intricacies of the quest for legitimacy during military occupations.

THE TRUE NATURE OF ARMENIAN MIGRATION ON THE EASTERN FRONT: THE CASE OF BİTLİS PROVINCE (1914-1922)

On 28 July 1914, when the First World War started, the Russian Caucasian army attacked the Ottoman lands in November 1914 and many Armenians adhere the Russian army. Taking advantage of this rebellion, Russian troops occupied Van on 20 May 1915 and dominated the region. With the occupation of Van, the Ottoman Government enacted the Law on Relocation and Resettlement on 27 May 1915 and relocated some Armenians in the war zones to the southern provinces of the Ottoman Empire for military reasons. In July 1915, the Russians, were forced to migrate the Armenians in the zone of occupation to the Caucasus. With the Russian occupation of Eastern Anatolia in 1916, the Armenians who had migrated returned. In 1917, with the withdrawal of the Russian Caucasian army, these Armenians had fled with the Russians. With the signing of the Armistice of Mudros, some Armenians came to Bitlis. In 1922, with the success of the Turkish War of Independence, Armenians who did not want to stay in Anatolia migrated to Istanbul and various Western countries. With the outbreak of the First World War, Armenians experienced a continuous migration movement due to the war conditions. Bitlis was one of the provinces where this migration movement took place. One of the main reasons for choosing Bitlis as a sample is that it is a province with a high Armenian population density. Secondly, the occupation of Bitlis by the Russians. It is assumed that the Armenian migrations in Bitlis were political in nature rather than war related. In this respect, it was determined that the Armenian population mobility in Bitlis took place eight times. As a result, it is possible to say that the main reason for such frequent mobility was that the Armenians acted with the Allies.

ORDOLIBERAL SOCIO-ECONOMIC POLICY AS A MODEL OF REFORMS FOR THE EASTERN PARTNERSHIP COUNTRIES

The Ordoliberal economic policy is a valuable source of inspiration for many countries wanting to reform their political and socio-economic systems. It is also a valuable "object" of research and analysis. Ordoliberalism was initially introduced only in the Western occupation zones, then, after the reunification of Germany in 1990, it was extended to the area of the former German Democratic Republic and, to some extent, constituted a reference point for reforms in the countries of Central Europe. In turn, the Eastern Partnership is an initiative based on close cooperation between the EU and six Eastern European countries that are not members of the EU structures. It was inaugurated ten years ago on the initiative of Poland and Sweden. This publication tries to answer the question to what extent the German experience with ordoliberalism can be useful for countries undergoing the process of systemic transformation, with particular emphasis on the countries of Eastern Partnership countries. The analysis was prepared using the institutional and legal method, while the main source base were available scientific publications and published documents. Keywords: Ordoliberalism, Eastern Partnership, Social Market Economy.

Genesis and evolution of parallel economies during the Syrian crisis: A political economy view

A highly internationalized domestic armed conflict in Syria, active since 2011, has caused deep territorial fragmentation, accompanied by the genesis of numerous parallel economies. Those include the economy of the self-proclaimed “Kurdish autonomy” encompassing the northeast, partially the north and the east of the country, as well as the historical transboundary criminal-terrorist economy of the “Islamic State of Syria and the Levant” (ISIL or ISIS) (this organization is banned in the Russian Federation), which existed during 2014–2019 in Iraq and Syria, the economy of “the Turkish occupation zone” in the north, and finally the economy of the part of the north-western Idlib province, remaining under control of the radical Syrian opposition. Unlike the previous materials on the Syrian conflict published in Russia and abroad, the author analyzes parallel economies from the angle of political economy, i.e., the “state-economy-individual” trichotomy, using current and retrospective lenses. In addition to a scope of Russian, English, and Arabic resources and literature, he uses the data obtained empirically during his previous stint as a senior diplomat at the Russian Embassy in Damascus. In certain cases the reviews are illustrated by the statistics. The article covers the genesis and evolution of parallel economies, including the phenomena of divided cities and siege economies, highlighting the restrictions on the access of the central authorities to the state borders and the dissolution of transport and communications. Besides, it analyses the external orientations of parallel economies, in many cases being tied more to the neighbor states (Türkiye, Iraq) than the rest of Syria. In conclusion, the author compares the levels of sustainability of the parallel economies in Syria in the light of perspectives for national economic reintegration. Which could be important not in scientific terms only but as a practical imperative for seeking the modalities of a peaceful settlement of the Syrian crisis as well.

Mykola Makarenko ir Mariupolio neolitinis kapinynas. Tragiškas ukrainiečio archeologo ir vietovės likimas

Mariupol Neolithic burial site, unique by its exclusive rich and diversiform inventory, was excavated by Ukrainian archaeologist and art critic Mykola Makarenko in 1930. The author of the excavations was executed by Soviet punitive authorities. The top-level and highly informative publication of the materials on the cemetery, made in 1933, was confiscated. Part of the burial inventory was taken to Russia. Anthropological materials were destroyed during World War II.The tragedy of Mariupol Cemetery continued in 2022. This was the year which became the tragedy in the history of Ukraine and inherently influenced the history of Europe. The Ukrainian people, the Ukrainian nature, and the Ukrainian culture suffered irretrievable losses. So did Ukrainian archaeology.Hundreds of archaeological sites in the war zone, in the zone of occupation and in the annexed territories were completely destroyed or irreparably damaged. Among them, there were the scant surviving artifacts from Mariupol Cemetery.This article is devoted to the history of excavations of Mariupol Burial Complex and the tragic fate of the collection of artifacts.

Charlotte Meentzen – Einblicke in ein Dresdner Naturkosmetik-Unternehmen der 30er und 40er Jahre

Abstract In the early 1930s, the trained beautician Charlotte Meentzen founded a company in Dresden based on naturopathy with the three pillars of a cosmetics institute, production and school. The foundation, financed by her father Theodor Meentzen, a professional speaker and publicist as well as trade union and SPD member, took place at a time of upheaval that affected the prevailing image of women as well as economic and political conditions. Charlotte Meentzen and her sister Gertrud, who joined the company early on, belonged to a close circle of professional women who ventured into self-employment in an industry that was still controversial at the time. The essay focuses on Charlotte Meentzen as a person, the circumstances surrounding the founding of the company in terms of female entrepreneurship, the cosmetics industry in general and natural cosmetics in particular against the backdrop of the final years of the Weimar Republic and the Nazi era in the Saxon metropolis. At the time, Dresden was considered a stronghold of naturopathy and was proclaimed the «Stadt der Volksgesundheit» («City of Public Health») under the Nazi regime. Using (advertising) examples such as the guide published by Meentzen in 1941, «Heilkräfte im Dienste der Schönheit» («Healing powers in the service of beauty»), the actions of the company management between adaptation and self-assertion become clear. This applied not least to the years of reconstruction in the Soviet occupation zone and the GDR, whereby the sisters always remained true to their convictions regarding individual health and beauty on the basis of natural remedies.

More than Just a Business: Recasting Literary Publishing in Postwar Germany, 1945–1949

Like other creative industries emerging in mid-1945 from 12 years of Nazi rule, including six years of war, German publishing was ideologically suspect, internationally isolated, and insular. By the 1950s, however, the book trade in the two German successor states was once again varied and vibrant. And it was also tightly integrated into the international publishing business, within which it had become an increasingly active and important presence. This article analyzes the development of the German book publishing industry during the Allied occupation, 1945-1949, through the lens of knowledge transfer. It was a time during which capital-starved German publishers harnessed the political and ideological objectives of the occupiers and their prewar contacts to achieve their own commercial and cultural ambitions, including taking initial steps toward internationalization. The focus is on literary fiction, a genre that constituted a minority of all published output in the postwar period, but which also included all top bestsellers. Literature in translation, moreover, accounted for a substantial proportion of those bestselling books, and at the same time represented a key vehicle for internationalization. Two case studies, one drawn from the Soviet zone of occupation, the later East Germany, and one from the western zones that came to be dominated by the Americans, the later West Germany, illustrate two different, yet remarkably similar paths through which this interplay of ideological alignment and commerce played out among a range of actors and laid the basis for the subsequent development of the industry.

Incidence of circular refurbishment measures on indoor air quality and comfort conditions in two real buildings: Experimental and numerical analysis

The application of Circular Economy to construction sector is a key to attain carbon neutrality, since it is responsible of 40 % of natural resource consumption. In this frame the importance of an efficient building refurbishment process throughout recycled material and renewable energy is fundamental. From an overview about building refurbishment emerges the need to investigate aspects related to Indoor Environmental Quality and the comparison between in-field measurements with output of dynamic simulation models. The present study aims to fill these two gaps by means an energy renovation of two real buildings in Greece. The work develops within the European project “Drive 0″, born to promote deep environmentally friendly retrofitting by means of circular renovation concepts. The methodological approach involves on-site monitoring of a series of parameters describing the energy, microclimate environmental and air quality, before and after the energy requalification. In addition, a numerical model developed in Building Energy Simulation program is calibrated and a Computational Fluid Dynamics is developed. From the in-field measurements emerges that, on one hand, the refurbishment of heating system shows a great improvement of indoor thermal conditions, with Total Volatile Organic Compounds concentration that sometimes exceed 3.0 mg/m3; on the other hand an integrated thermal insulation reduces infiltrations and changes the envelope behaviour, with a global energy saving of 30 % during winter and autumn periods.Another result of the study shows that a numerical model developed in Building Energy Simulation program and calibrated on energy consumption can greatly fit the local thermal comfort distribution of the occupant zone and predict the indoor air quality, if it outputs are used as input data in a Computational Fluid Dynamics study. These results can be beneficial to decision makers and designers for evaluating emitters positioning, opening design and mechanical ventilation strategies, aimed at reducing energy costs.

Genesis and evolution of parallel economies during the Syrian crisis: A political economy view

A highly internationalized domestic armed conflict in Syria, active since 2011, has caused deep territorial fragmentation, accompanied by the genesis of numerous parallel economies. Those include the economy of the self-proclaimed “Kurdish autonomy” encompassing the northeast, partially the north and the east of the country, as well as the historical transboundary criminal-terrorist economy of the “Islamic State of Syria and the Levant” (ISIL or ISIS) (this organization is banned in the Russian Federation), which existed during 2014–2019 in Iraq and Syria, the economy of “the Turkish occupation zone” in the north, and finally the economy of the part of the north-western Idlib province, remaining under control of the radical Syrian opposition. Unlike the previous materials on the Syrian conflict published in Russia and abroad, the author analyzes parallel economies from the angle of political economy, i.e., the “state-economy-individual” trichotomy, using current and retrospective lenses. In addition to a scope of Russian, English, and Arabic resources and literature, he uses the data obtained empirically during his previous stint as a senior diplomat at the Russian Embassy in Damascus. In certain cases the reviews are illustrated by the statistics. The article covers the genesis and evolution of parallel economies, including the phenomena of divided cities and siege economies, highlighting the restrictions on the access of the central authorities to the state borders and the dissolution of transport and communications. Besides, it analyses the external orientations of parallel economies, in many cases being tied more to the neighbor states (Türkiye, Iraq) than the rest of Syria. In conclusion, the author compares the levels of sustainability of the parallel economies in Syria in the light of perspectives for national economic reintegration. Which could be important not in scientific terms only but as a practical imperative for seeking the modalities of a peaceful settlement of the Syrian crisis as well.

KAJICA MILANOV, BRANISLAV STRANjAKOVIĆ I MEHANIZMI USPOSTAVLjANjA TOTALITARIZMA U JUGOSLAVIJI

Eight decades after 1944 as the key year for regime change in Serbia, the thesis that Serbia was liberated then is still dominant. The author examines the definition of the process of change of power that took place at that time. Using the works of Kajica Milanov and Branislav Stranjaković, originally published in emigration as evidence of the methods of establishing totalitarian government in Serbia and Yugoslavia, he presents the hypothesis that one occupation was then replaced by another. The Nazi occupation was replaced by a communist totalitarian system based on the “liberation” of people from private property, human rights and freedoms, the rule of law and elementary security, from family values, religion and tradition, etc. In addition, there are numerous testimonies that the “liberators” perceived Serbia as an occupation zone and its inhabitants as enemies. Based on all that and the results of the rule of the Titoist system, we claim that 1944 cannot be spoken of as a year of liberation.

Специфика кадрового комплектования советского акционерного общества «Висмут»: материалы переписки аппарата Первого главного управления при Совете министров СССР и парторганизаций Свердловского обкома ВКП(б) в 1949 г.

The publication introduces into scientific use correspondence of the deputy head of the First Main Directorate (PGU, executing agency of the Soviet nuclear project) under the Council of Ministers of the USSR P. Ya. Meshik with the party organizations of the Sverdlovsk Regional Committee of the AUCP (B) on the issue of recruitment for work abroad. The analysis of references to the resolutions of the Council of Ministers known to researchers establishes that the Soviet Joint-Stock Company “Wismut” located in Germany recruited mining engineers and specialists in the field of geological exploration. Its subordinates were engaged in search and development of uranium deposits in the Soviet zone of occupation of Germany. A raw material base for extraction and processing of uranium-containing ores was formed for implementation of the Soviet nuclear weapons program in the second half of the 1940s. For reasons of state secrecy, researchers are still significantly limited in access to archival documents on the history of the nuclear project. Thus, introduction into scientific use of new historical sources related to the project implementation already seems sufficiently relevant and high-demand scientific task. In this case, it is a selection of five documents deposited in the materials of the Sverdlovsk City Committee of the AUCP (B) Documentation Center of Public Organizations of the Sverdlovsk Region associated with the mass recruitment of mining and exploration workers entrusted to the Sverdlovsk Regional Committee of the AUCP (B) in spring of 1949 in the interests of the nuclear project. At the direction of the Regional Committee (obkom), the Sverdlovsk City Committee selected a number of necessary specialists, and the First Main Directorate began their registration for work abroad. In the autumn of 1949, a request came from the PGU about expediency of such transfer for one of the selected specialists. Doubts were caused by minor flaws indicated in his generally positive characteristic. Responding to the request, the city committee withdrew its decision. The introduction of the identified documents collection into scientific use is due to two reasons. Firstly, at the grassroots stage, it fixes the recruitment system for the Soviet nuclear project, which has been little studied up to date. Secondly, on a hypothetical level, it can be considered an illustration of a mechanism of evasion from mobilization into the atomic project system, which frightened many specialists with its obscurity.

Organizacja i przebieg repatriacji Polaków przez Szczecin z brytyjskiej strefy okupacyjnej Niemiec w latach 1945–1947

Organization and Course of Repatriation of Poles Through Szczecin From the British Occupation Zone of Germany in 1945–1947 The article characterizes the organization and course of the return to the country of Polish repatriates from the British occupation zone in Germany through Szczecin in the first years after the end of World War II. This planned and mass operation involved thousands of Poles, especially the so-called forced laborers sent to work in the Third Reich, prisoners of war imprisoned in camps and demobilized soldiers of the Polish Armed Forces in the West. Szczecin played a special role in this proces due to its location near the border with Germany in the new geopolitical reality, its location on an important sea route to the Baltic Sea and favorable conditions for the use of road and rail communication. Not without significance was the good preparation of Stage Point No. 2 of the State Repatriation Office in the city on the Oder River, which sometimes received several thousand people a day. The author preceded analysis of the action of return of the Polish population to their homeland with information about the negotiations on this matter between the interested authorities of Great Britain, the USSR and Poland. Repatriation carried out by road, sea and rail brought significant results, as nearly 265,000 people came to Szczecin, the vast majority of whom were then transported by train to the interior of the country, where their families were already waiting. A few remained in the city, some lived in Western Pomerania, being an addition for the population consisted of settlers arriving from the East.

О СТАЊУ СРПСКОГ ЈЕЗИКА И ПИСМА У ОКУПИРАНОЈ СРБИЈИ ЗА ВРЕМЕ ВЕЛИКОГ РАТА (1915–1918) И О ПОТОЊИМ РЕЦИДИВИМА ТОГА СТАЊА

During the Great War (World War I), the Austro‑Hungarian occupier divided Serbia into two occupation zones: the western, Austro‑Hungarian, and the eastern, Bulgarian. The occupation government sought to destroy the political and national self‑awareness of Serbians by launching its propaganda Belgrade newspaper („Beogradske novine”) after banning all domestic newspapers. Newspapers were published in the so‑called „Serbo‑Croatian” („srpsko‑hrvatski”) language, in Ijekavic and Latin, under the editorship of foreigners, i.e. German and Austro‑Hungarian subjects. Forms of the Zagreb (Croatian) variant of the Serb language were imposed through language editing. In the areas that belonged to the Bulgarian occupation zone, a similar program was implemented as in Austro‑Hungarian zone, only not in the direction of Croatization, but Bulgarianization of the Serbian population (banning the use of the Serb language and script, Serb books, Serb personal names, Serb fame, etc.). However, certain occupation methods from the First World War and earlier times, contained in the fight against the Serbs through the denial of the Serb language and culture, will continue to last in later periods in the Serb ethnic areas, including Serbia. This will continue, in the new political circumstances, to coincide in many ways with the Austro‑Hungarian occupation plans from the First World War. Thus, in the fight against Serb identity and national features, the pro‑Croatian government of the CPY (Comunnist Party of Yugoslavia) and the communist leader J. Broz Tito accepted solutions from the time of the Austro‑Hungarian occupation of the Western Balkans, which were directly harmful to the Serbs. However, the collapse of the communist/socialist Yugoslavia (The Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia) did not bring significant changes to the Serbs regarding the preservation of the national script (the Cyrillic alphabet), as well as the name Serb language („српски језик”).

Гросс-Гессенское викариатство РПЦЗ при архиепископе Филофее (Нарко) 1946–1949 гг.

The article studies the creation and development of the Gross-Hessen Diocese of Vicar of the Russian Orthodox Church Abroad (ROCOR) in the years of 1946-1949. It is noted that at the end of the 2nd World War on the territory of Western zones of occupation in Germany, thousands of Orthodox refugees were in need of pastoral and spiritual care and guidance. Synod of ROCOR decided to form a set of vicar’s dioceses, so that in the region of Gross-Hessen, the one was established and was headed by the bishop of the Belarusian Autonomous Orthodox Church by Archbishop Philofei (Narko). Contrary to financial and other social difficulties, the Vicar managed to organize regular liturgical life and largely unite different Orthodox parishes of the Displaced Persons. Some organizational decisions made by Archbishop Philofei are analyzed. In particular, the decision was made to hold regular meetings of the clergy, to form an advisory body under the Vicar Bishop (Vicarian Council in Wiesbaden). The Archbishop organized with success distribution of food assistance to parishes of his diocese in the economically difficult 1949.Based on original documents preserved in the Archives of the German Diocese of the ROCOR, the author provides statistics on the number of parishes, specific names of the clergy who developed parishes in Wiesbaden, where the residence and the Cathedral of Vicar was established, in Darmstadt, Frankfurt, Menhegoff, Furstenwald, Gudensberg and in other places were discovered. The problems that prevented a successful development of the liturgical and out-service life of the Vicar’s diocese are studied, namely: lack of clergy after mass departure of priests and parishioners from Germany to countries of the Western Hemisphere in 1947-1949; conflict over activities of the Orthodox Missionary Group of Hessen-Nassau; problem of the development of Belarusian parishes due to desire of part of the Belarusian political emigration to strengthen the autocephalous movement. Comparative analysis of the activities of the Vicar’s bishops of the Russian Orthodox Church, activities of the North German Bishop Afanasy (Martos) and the Grossen-Hessen’s Archbishop Philofei (Narko) is carried out.

Die GfM als gesamtdeutsche Gesellschaft


 
 
 The “Gesellschaft für Musikforschung” (GfM) was, from its foundation until 1968, the professional representation of musicologists in all German occupation zones and of both German states. Since the establishment of the branch office in Leipzig (1954), the GfM was politically instrumentalized by the GDR party and state apparatus as well as by musicologists loyal to the SED. The most important goal was the creation of two sections representing East and West Germany respectively; alternatively, the foundation of a separate musicological society in the GDR was prepared. These efforts were intensified after the construction of the Berlin Wall (1961). A central role was played by Karl Laux, the director of the Dresden Music Academy, and a personal friend of GfM president Friedrich Blume. Following a decision of the Secretariat of the Central Committee of the SED on April 5, 1967, the GfM finally had to end its activities in the GDR in September 1968, and East-German musicologists joined the “Verband Deutscher Komponisten”.
 
 

Paving the road to reconciliation: the training and practice of the Friends Relief Service in post-war reconciliation, 1943 to 1947

ABSTRACT In 1943 the British Quaker organization, the Friends Relief Service (FRS), established a training programme to prepare volunteers and members for post-war relief work. Located in London, the programme centred on Quaker pacifist tradition and conviction, drew upon instances of relief work during and after the Great War, and integrated the experience and expertise of relief workers in the field. Unlike the international organizations and Allied governments who defined ‘rehabilitation’ as economic and political reconstruction, the FRS considered the rehabilitation of the community and spirit of displaced and refugee populations as essential to the process of structural rebuilding in post-war Europe. Thus, a central mandate of the FRS was to encourage reconciliation and foster internationalism among former enemies. This article examines how the FRS prepared members for post-war reconciliation work and the application of training by FRS teams in the British Occupation Zone in Germany between 1945 and 1947. This work will underscore the role of professionalization, as expressed in formal training for post-war relief work, within the FRS, while also illustrating the challenges, limitations and opportunities in cultivating reconciliation among displaced persons (DP), refugees and local German populations.

Osmanlı Sonrası Şer’î Aile Hukuku Uygulamaları: Filistin Örneği

Palestine remained under the rule of the Ottoman Empire for nearly four centuries. During this period, the Ottoman legal system was in force in Palestine as well as in the lands under Ottoman rule. Another link of the enactment movement that started after the Tanzimat for various reasons was the Ottoman Legal Family Decree (OLFD). The decree, which came into force in 1917, was implemented in the field of Sharia family law in Palestine. As a result of the weakening of the Ottoman Empire in the region, the Palestinian lands were given to the administration of Britain in 1918 by the decision of the UN. Britain made radical reforms in the field of law in the region, but it did not amend the application of Sharia family law, and the OLFD, which was previously implemented in the region, was implemented. Britain, which kept silent on the problems between the Jews who constantly settled in the region and the dream of establishing a state and the people of the region, withdrew from the region in 1948. The Jews who had previously become stronger politically, administratively economically, declared on the same day that they had established the State of Israel in the region. The decision in question was met with a reaction by some surrounding Arab states. As a result of the war between the newly established State of Israel and the Arab states, the Palestinian territories were divided into three parts administratively. The area which was defined as the Occupation Zone, passed to Israeli control, Gaza region to Egyptian control, and West Bank region to Jordanian administration. The states that dominate Palestinian territories implemented their own law system in the territories where they administer. The Law Decree that was previously in force in the West Bank region, which is under the control of Jordan, and the laws that came into force after it were periodically abolished, and it had already been replaced only in the West Bank region by "Kanûnu'l-Ahvâli'ş-Şahsiyye" No. 61 of 1976. As far as it can be determined, the lack of study on the subject in our country has led us to investigate the subject. Again, this study is aimed to constitute a stepping stone to the research of other countries' Sharia family law practices. In the examination, it was concluded that “Kânûnu’l-Ahvâli’ş-Şahsiyye” is a binding law only for Muslims who are living in the West Bank, it was prepared with a telphic understanding as well as it is mainly Hanafi sect, the judges are given the opportunity to make new ijtihads provided that they stay within the Islamic legal system, some of the articles are different from the classical sectarian ijtihads, and some of the articles were prepared by considering the customs of the region. Among the results reached, the father is obligated to cover his children's education expenses until they receive their primary, secondary, high school, and university diplomas. The education expenses are counted as alimony, and education is given importance without discrimination between boys and girls. The law consists of 187 articles, and it has been accepted in principle that the preferred view should be taken as a basis in the Hanafi sect on matters not stated in the law. The study, it is aimed that is known the Shari family law and its application. The study, prepared within the framework of explaining and titling the articles of the law, was formed based on the sections of classical and modern fiqh works, court ijtihads, and the Official Gazette decisions issued on the subject. The mentioned study aimed to investigate the family law enforcement in one part of Palestine (West Bank), and it suggested conducting a comprehensive study on the Shari family law enforcement in the remaining two regions (Gazza and Occupation Zone). * This study was prepared based on the master’s thesis, titled “Shariah Family Law Practices in Post-Ottoman Palestine”, which has continued under the supervision of Assoc. Dr. Pehlul Duzenli (Yalova: Yalova University, Graduate Education Institute, master’s thesis, 2023)

Women education in the Soviet prophylactoria and the care homes for sexually transmitted disease patients in the Soviet Occupation Zone of Germany.

In the 1920s, so-called prophylactoria were established in the USSR. In these institutions, sex workers with sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) were treated. After the end of World War II, care homes for patients with STDs were established in the Soviet Occupation Zone of Germany (SOZ). These institutions were also intended to treat people suffering from STDs. This article compares these two types of medical institutions. Sources from the State Archive of the Russian Federation in Moscow, the German Federal Archives in Berlin and the City Archive Zwickau were used. The analysed sources were evaluated by using the historical-critical method. The prophylactoria were novel institutions that combined education and medical treatment of people with STDs. Similar strategies were followed in the care homes for STD patients. In both institutions, the sick persons had to follow a regular daily routine and work every day. The political indoctrination served to educate 'socialist personalities'. Nevertheless, various differences can be found between the facilities: the length of stay was different. The women in Soviet prophylactoria were cared for there for up to 2 years. However, the standard duration of stay in the care homes for STD patients was 3-6 months. The prophylactoria had a long-term programme not only to treat sick women but also to reeducate them. The aim was to enlighten and integrate them into the new Soviet society. The care homes for STD patients had a short-term programme of combating venereal diseases. Their main goal was to treat patients with STDs as quickly as possible, while education was an additional measure. Whether both institutions were successful in educating and treating these patients can hardly be assessed from today's perspective.

Persecutee in the Third Reich, full professor in the GDR: The communist physician Carl Coutelle (1908-1993) and his post-war career as pathologist.

As an avowed communist, Carl Coutelle was one of the few (future) pathologists persecuted for purely political reasons in the Third Reich. Despite this peculiarity, his life has received little attention. The present article takes the existing research desideratum as an opportunity to elaborate on Coutelle's fate during the Nazi era, but also on his academic rise to the position of full professor at the University of Halle (GDR). The analysis is based on extensive files from various German archives. The article pursues a twofold question: On the one hand, it seems necessary to clarify how Coutelle's life between 1933 and 1945 can be characterized and classified, and on the other hand, it is of interest whether he owed his career in the GDR primarily to scientific merit or to state support.It can be shown that Coutelle's career path reflects the prevailing political power relations: With the beginning of the Third Reich, Coutelle was completely disenfranchised because of his political views; he was forced to emigrate, interrupted his nascent scientific career, and became actively involved in the international anti-fascist resistance. After the war, Coutelle became one of the protagonists of the socialist transformation and denazification of the health care system in the Soviet Occupation Zone. Now his career took the opposite course: Although his research performance was below average compared to other pathologists from the GDR, the avowed communist was appointed full professor - due to state intervention and against the declared will of the faculty in Halle.

To count or not to count: British politics of framing and the condition of “illegal infiltree” in the Bergen-Belsen DP camp (1945–1948)

This article explores the politics of humanitarian assistance in the aftermath of the Second World War, by examining the act of framing certain groups of Jewish refugees as “infiltrees”, in the context of the British occupation zone of Germany, and the Bergen-Belsen DP camp more specifically. Based on archival sources and the available literature, it dissects this legal categorisation to help understand who the different individuals categorised as infiltrees were, the wider political conjuncture that informed this framing, and the real consequences felt by those who were framed as such. This article demonstrates the extent to which the attribution of legal categories to those on the move, with tangible effects for those individuals, represents a deeply politicised practice in Europe, which has been operating at least since the first half of the twentieth century, and which continues today.