Obsessive-compulsive Personality Disorder Research Articles

The inflexible mind: A critical factor in understanding and addressing COVID-19 vaccine hesitancy

BackgroundVaccine hesitancy has gained heightened relevance amid the COVID-19 pandemic, underscoring the urgency of understanding its determinants. This study explores the association between Covid-19 vaccine hesitancy, mental health variables and inflexible thinking. MethodsA convenience sample of 252 UK adults was assessed online between June 2021–July 2022 (when Covid-19 lockdown restrictions had finally eased). We assessed participants using the Oxford Covid Vaccine Hesitancy Scale (OCVHS), various aspects of mental health, using: the Obsessive-Compulsive Inventory-Revised (OCI-R), Compulsive Personality Assessment Scale (CPAS), Depression, Anxiety, and Stress scale (DASS-21), and finally, performance on a computerized version of the Wisconsin Card Sort Task (WCST). This study was preregistered at the Open Science Framework (https://osf.io/xd5wz). ResultsMultiple regression analyses showed that only cognitive inflexibility, and specifically the WCST item of perseverative errors, significantly predicted vaccine hesitancy. ConclusionOur exploratory analysis provides the first evidence that cognitive inflexibility, measured using an objective task, is an independent risk-factor for vaccine hesitancy. Public health strategies should consider the impact of an inflexible thinking style on the decision-making of those most at risk of vaccine hesitancy and adapt interventions accordingly.

Associations of Reversal Learning Performance With Personality Disorder Profile and Drug Abuse History in a Sample of Prison Inmates.

Prison inmate samples present a high prevalence of impulsivity- and compulsivity-related behavioral problems. The Probabilistic Reversal Learning Task (PRLT) is a useful tool to assess decision-making, and we explore its associations with inmates' personality disorder (antisocial personality disorder, APD; obsessive-compulsive personality disorder, OCPD; or both) and history of drug abuse. Mixed-effects methods were used to model acquisition and reacquisition curves across PRLT, in a sample of 275 prison inmates diagnosed with OCPD, APD, or both. Two aspects were assessed: general discrimination learning and decision-making inflexibility. Participants with a mixed personality disorder profile showed a clear pattern of decisional inflexibility. A history of drug abuse was associated with a general poorer performance but not with decision-making inflexibility. Inability to adapt to changing contingencies, and thus to adverse consequences of previously rewarded choices, was not linked to compulsivity, as hypothesized to be present in OCPD and substance use disorders, but to the mixed APD/OCPD profile.

Cybercrime target exposure, suitability, personality, and victimization: A longitudinal approach

This study utilizes the routine activity theory as a framework to examine if workplace social media usage, compulsive internet use, online aggression and personality traits are related to an elevated risk of cybervictimization. We leveraged 7-wave longitudinal survey data from the Finnish working population (N = 650) and employed multilevel, mixed-effects logistic regression to analyze fixed effects of in-between variables. Our findings reveal that target exposure, suitability and the personality trait of openness had a positive relationship with cybervictimization. We observed fluctuations in cybervictimization across the observation points, although the temporal pattern did not follow a linear trajectory. The results underscore the importance of longitudinal studies on victimization and advocate additional research on cybervictimization within the working population. This study also emphasizes the need for the integration of established theories to augment our comprehension of the fundamental factors influencing cybervictimization.

Impulsivity in antisocial personality disorder and obsessive-compulsive personality disorder in prison population

This study examined impulsivity in antisocial personality disorder (ASPD) and obsessive-compulsive personality disorder (OCPD) in the context of criminal offending. Participants completed the Demographic, Criminal, and Institutional Behavior Interview, the International Personality Disorder Examination, the Symptom Checklist-90-Revised, and the Impulsive Behavior Scale, that the APD and OCPD groups can commit the same crimes (against people and against objects). The results revealed that ASPD and OCPD groups can commit the same crimes (against human and against objects), although they differ in terms of impulsivity [Negative Urgency (UN), Sensation Seeking (BS) and Positive Urgency (UP)], with the OCPD group scoring lower on these dimensions. In the ASPD group, those who had committed crimes against human scored higher in UN, BS and UP than those who had committed crimes against objects. In the OCPD group, those who had committed crimes against human scored higher on UN and lower on BS and UP than those who had committed crimes against objects. The importance of analyzing personality disorder profiles for a better understanding of criminal behavior is emphasized.

Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder Comorbid with or without Obsessive-Compulsive Personality Disorder: Conceptual Implications, Clinical Correlates and Brain Morphometries

BackgroundObsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) is often comorbid with obsessive-compulsive personality disorder (OCPD). The relationship between OCD and OCPD is complex, and the impact of comorbid OCPD on OCD remains underexplored, necessitating further research.. This study aims to investigate the clinical correlates and brain morphometries associated with comorbid OCPD in a large sample of unmedicated OCD patients. MethodsA total of 248 unmedicated patients diagnosed with OCD (45 comorbid with OCPD) were included in this study. All participants were assessed for OCD symptoms, OCPD traits, obsessive beliefs, depression and anxiety. Among them, 145 patients (23 comorbid with OCPD) volunteered to receive magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) brain scans. ResultsApproximately 18% (45/248) of OCD patients were comorbid with OCPD. OCD comorbid with OCPD (OCD+OCPD) exhibited more severe OCD symptoms, obsessive beliefs, depression and anxiety than OCD comorbid without OCPD. Additionally, the severity of OCPD was positively correlated with OCD symptoms and obsessive beliefs. Furthermore, OCD+OCPD patients exhibited increased cortical complexity in the left superior parietal lobule and left precuneus, which mediated the relationship between OCPD and OCD symptoms only in OCD patients comorbid without OCPD. ConclusionsThe co-occurrence of OCPD may contribute to the heightened severity of psychopathological symptoms and associated brain morphological alterations in OCD patients, indicating distinct but interrelated constructs between these two disorders.

Association between pathogenic beliefs and personality disorders

Background and objectivesPersonality disorders are significant entities in the field of psychiatry and serve as predisposing factors for Axis I clinical disorder. The Treatment of choice is psychotherapy, and one specific approach is Control Mastery Therapy, which emphasizes addressing Pathogenic beliefs (PB). This study aimed to investigate whether there is a relationship between PB and specific personality disorders and whether these beliefs align with the core features specified in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) for that personality disorder. Materials and methodsThis study employed a retrospective cross-sectional design and included 319 participants, comprising individuals receiving treatment at the Psychotherapy Clinic at Maharaj Nakorn Chiang Mai Hospital, Faculty of Medicine, Chiang Mai University between 2007 and 2023. All participants were assessed and completed the Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV Axis II - Personality Disorders Questionnaire (SCID-II-PQ), Pathogenic Beliefs Scale, and Outcome-Inventory (depression). A generalized linear model (binary logistic regression) was employed, and the predictors included personality disorders. The outcome was the pathogenic belief, and covariates encompassed age, sex, education, clinical diagnosis, and depression score. A sensitivity analysis was conducted to examine the effect on the model when outliers of depressive scores were present. ResultsAfter adjusting for depression, ten personality disorders were found to predict 16 pathogenic beliefs out of the 27 outcomes examined. Notably, histrionic and obsessive-compulsive personality disorders showed no association with specific pathogenic beliefs. Furthermore, certain pathogenic beliefs were predicted by multiple personality disorders, while conversely, some personality disorders were associated with multiple pathogenic beliefs as well. Sensitivity analysis revealed that outliers influenced the relationships between certain disorders and pathogenic beliefs, particularly those with small effect sizes. ConclusionsThe profound impact of pathogenic beliefs intertwined with personality disorders, particularly influenced by childhood trauma and evident in Cluster B and schizotypal disorders, underscores the critical need for targeted psychotherapeutic interventions. Addressing these beliefs directly is key to enhancing treatment efficacy and patient outcomes. Pathogenic belief should be elicited in clinical settings regardless of personality disorder, especially those who experienced depression. Moving forward, rigorous research is imperative to validate and refine therapeutic approaches aimed at reshaping pathogenic beliefs, ensuring they become pivotal in transforming clinical practice and advancing mental health care.

Psychological and Psychiatric Characteristics of People with Keratoconus

Background and Objectives: There are many reports in the literature on the co-occurrence of somatic diseases and psychiatric disorders. Relatively few have addressed the co-occurrence of corneal cone with anxiety, depression, or personality disorders. Materials and Methods: 99 patients with keratoconus (study group) and 92 patients without keratoconus (control group) participated in the entire study, which was conducted in 2015 and 2020–2023. The Hamilton Depression Rating Scale (HDRS) and Beck’s Depression Inventory (BDI) were used to assess depressive symptoms, the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI) to assess anxiety symptoms, and the DSM-IV Personality Disorder Inventory (IBZO-DSM-IV) to identify personality disorders. Results: In the study group, the severity of depressive and anxiety symptoms correlated with all types of personality disorders. In the control group, these symptoms did not correlate with antisocial and narcissistic personalities. In the comparative analysis, there were more patients with antisocial, schizotypal, obsessive compulsive, schizoid, paranoid, and dependent personality traits in the study group. Conclusions: Patients with keratoconus have increased expressions of antisocial personality traits, but no differences in anxiety and depression symptoms were evident. Further research is needed among patients diagnosed with keratoconus in the short term.

Exploring the Nexus: Personality Disorders and Their Impact on Violent Extremism, Radicalism, and Activism.

The escalating global concerns surrounding radicalization and violent extremism necessitate a comprehensive understanding and explanation. Identifying the risk factors associated with radicalism and violent extremism is critical to the development of risk assessment, prevention, and intervention strategies. It is imperative to distinguish these risks from civic responsibilities (i.e., activism) to safeguard individual rights. This study aims to examine the association between well-established risk factors for violence-personality disorder symptoms-and violent extremist attitudes, radicalism, and activism. Findings indicate that antisocial personality disorder symptoms were linked to violent extremist attitudes and radicalism, whereas obsessive-compulsive disorder symptoms were related to activism. This suggests that obsessive-compulsive personality disorder may signify a readiness for legal and nonviolent political action; in contrast, antisocial personality disorder symptoms signify a readiness for extremist violence and illegal political action.

Child Abuse and Neglect and Obsessive–Compulsive Personality Traits: Effects of Attachment, Intolerance of Uncertainty, and Metacognition

AbstractChild Abuse and Neglect (CAN) is extensively implicated as a risk factor preceding the development of Obsessive–Compulsive Personality Traits (OCPT). Nevertheless, the majority of individuals with a history of CAN do not go on to develop OCPT. To date, little research has investigated potential model networks that may help contribute to explaining why CAN sometimes leads to OCPT and not at other times. Thus, this study aimed to investigate whether attachment-anxiety, intolerance of uncertainty, and metacognition have indirect effects in the association between CAN and OCPT in various network models. Undergraduate psychology students (N = 291) participated in an anonymous 30-min online survey consisting of a series of self-report questionnaires regarding child abuse and neglect, attachment, intolerance of uncertainty, metacognition, OCPT, and depression. Bootstrapped serial mediation revealed attachment-anxiety and intolerance of uncertainty had a serial-mediation effect in the association between CAN and OCPT. Serial mediation was not found for metacognition and attachment-anxiety. However, metacognition alone mediated between child emotional abuse and OCPT. These findings expand our currently limited knowledge regarding the etiology of OCPT and suggest that attachment-anxiety, intolerance of uncertainty, and metacognition may be important contributors for understanding the development of OCPT following CAN exposure. The potential clinical utility for both assessment and treatment are discussed.

Acceptance and Commitment Therapy as a Conceptual Treatment Model for Obsessive-Compulsive Personality Disorder

Acceptance and commitment therapy (ACT) has demonstrated efficacy in thousands of clinical trials for eating disorders, depression, anxiety, personality disorders, and more. However, ACT has not established efficacy as a treatment for obsessive compulsive personality disorder (OCPD) in a clinical trial. The prevalence of OCPD is one of the highest among personality disorders, yet there is a dearth of research regarding empirically supported treatments and the disorder in general. Aspects of OCPD, including perfectionism, mood intolerance, experiential avoidance, and impaired psychosocial functioning, make it particularly suitable for research involving ACT, which aims to increase psychological flexibility. The purpose of this paper is to elucidate a conceptual model for the treatment of OCPD using ACT. Specific strategies and techniques will be discussed. Future research avenues include exploring ACT as a viable treatment for OCPD, as well as the constructs of experiential avoidance and psychological flexibility related to OCPD functioning.

Breast Cancer and Its Impact on Individual Personality Through a Dimensional Perspective: A Literature Review.

Psychiatric pathology stands out in contemporary society not only as independentbut also through its association with other medical comorbidities such as neoplastic diseases. Specialized literature confirms over time the coexistence of these diseases. There is a tendency to develop various psychiatric manifestations such as mood disorders and somatoform disorders, as well as decompensation of underlying existing psychiatric pathologies (anxiety disorders and psychotic disorders) or personality disorders (a good example is the exacerbation of anxiety in obsessive-compulsive personality disorder). Breast cancer, like any disabling disease, affects the person's psyche and behaviors as a whole. It is scientifically proven that mental balance influences the quality of life of patients and also the evolution and prognosis of the disease, psychological processes being able to modulate the activity ofthe tumor process. It is necessary to expand clinical practice and research beyond the simple evaluation of symptoms, and the goal of treatment should not only be to reduce symptomsbut also to improve in terms of both physically and mentallythe quality of life of cancer patients.

Work addiction and personality organization: Results from a representative, three-wave longitudinal study

Background: Several studies have explored the relationship between personality and work addiction, suggesting that individuals with certain mental disorders, including personality disorders such as obsessive-compulsive personality disorder (OCPD), may be more prone to work addiction. However, the characterization of personality organization (PO) among workaholics and its contribution to the persistence of work addiction remains unclear. Methods: In this longitudinal study of a representative sample of young adults (N = 1748), we applied the Bergen Work Addiction Scale and the Inventory of Personality Organization. Results: We found significant correlations between work addiction and identity diffusion, primitive psychological defenses, reality testing, and overall personality disorganization across three waves. A latent class growth analysis revealed three profiles: no work addiction, increasing work addiction, and constant moderate work addiction. Multinomial logistic regression analysis indicated that higher levels of personality disorganization in wave 1 and increases in personality disorganization between waves 1 and 3 were associated with higher odds of belonging to the increasing work addiction group. Similarly, higher overall personality disorganization in wave 1 was associated with higher odds of belonging to the constant moderate work addiction group. Conclusion: These findings suggest that individuals with chronic work addiction have lower levels of PO, and PO declines as work addiction persists. Screenings for work addiction are recommended to prevent potential mental health issues. Future research should explore the influence of workplace characteristics and work motivations on the association between work addiction and personality disorders.

Analysis of writing in personality disorders in prison population

AbstractWriting involves the activation of different processing modes than reading comprehension, and therefore the level of activation varies depending on the moment and the task.Objectivesto analyze the profiles in terms of the proposed coding from the PROESC in terms of personality disorders [Antisocial Personality Disorder (ASPD) with drugs possession and consumption crimes (DPCC) and Obsessive-Compulsive Personality Disorder (OCPD)] with gender violence crimes (GVC) in the prisoners.DesignThe sample was composed of 194 men. The participants were divided into two groups. Group 1 (ASPD; DPCC) consisted of 81 men, and Group 2 (OCPD; GVC) consisted of 113 men.Main outcome measuresThey completed the Demographic, Offense, and Behavioral Interview in Institutions, the International Personality Disorders Examination (IPDE), and Writing Processes Evaluation Battery (PROESC).ResultsGroup 2 made more mistake than Group 1 in narratives tasks.ConclusionParticipants know phoneme-grapheme correspondence rules, language disturbances of a reiterative and persistent nature may appear in those who show compulsive behavior.

Clinical features of auto-aggressive behavior in borderline personality disorder: a review of current research

Borderline personality disorder (BPD) is a common psychiatric disorder characterized by severe auto-aggression (AA) in the form of suicide attempts (SA) and non-suicidal self-injury (NSSI). The purpose of this review was to describe the current knowledge about the clinical features of self-harming behavior in borderline personality disorder. Materials and methods: The eLibrary, PubMed, CNKI, and Google Scholar databases were searched for articles on the relevant search query for the last 11 years. As a result, 28 articles were selected and summarized (a total of 7,284 BPD patients and 134 controls were included). Results: Suicidal attempts occur in 75 % of BPD patients, and NSSIs — in 90 %. AA behavior varies with age: adolescents tend to NSSIs, while adults more often undertake SAs. Depending on the type of clinical dynamics, AA in BPD may be impulsive, demonstrative, associated with comorbid addiction, or occur in the context of depersonalization. Among BPD symptoms, feelings of chronic emptiness, avoidance of abandonment, emotional instability, and identity disturbance are most commonly associated with auto-aggression. Risk factors for self-harming behavior in BPD include traumatic childhood events, especially physical and sexual abuse, and stress caused by microsocial conflict. Men with BPD and AA more often have comorbid narcissistic, antisocial, paranoid, and schizotypal personality disorders, as well as substance use disorders. Women with borderline personality disorder and AA tend to suffer more from addictive and obsessive-compulsive personality disorders, as well as eating disorders, particularly bulimia nervosa. In conclusion, self-harming behavior in BPD has many clinical features and can manifest in different forms. It is always necessary to study the predominant clinical manifestations, risk factors, and comorbid disorders to be able to assess the severity of AA.

Recent insights in the correlation between social media use, personality traits and exercise addiction: a literature review.

The excessive involvement in physical activity without stopping in between sessions despite injuries, the continuous thinking to exercise feeling insane thoughts and experiencing withdrawal symptoms are all characteristics of the Exercise Addiction (EA), an addictive behavior. While the primary exercise addiction is directly caused by compulsive exercise, many studies highlighted the relationship between Eating Disorders (ED) and EA, defining the secondary EA. The correlation between EA, social media use (SMU) and other individual traits remains a relatively underexplored domain. Therefore, this review aimed to examine the latest evidence on the relationship between EA, SMU, and some personality traits such as perfectionism and body image. Electronic databases including PubMed, Medline, PsycARTICLES, Embase, Web of Science were searched from January 2019 to October 2023, following the PRISMA guidelines. A total of 15 articles were examined and consolidated in this review. EA was found to be related to different individual traits such perfectionism, body dissatisfaction, depression, obsessive-compulsive personality disorders. While controversial results were found regarding the relationship between EA and SMU. The interaction between mental health, exercise addiction and social media use is complex. Excessive engagement in these latter may result in negative mental health consequences despite their potential benefits. Understanding individual differences and developing effective interventions is crucial to promoting healthy habits and mitigating the EA risks, ultimately enhancing mental well-being. Further research should focus on the identification of risks and protective factors with the eventual aim of developing and implementing effective prevention strategies.

Complex emotional needs, overcontrol and death by suicide in older adults

Globally, older people are frequently at consistently greater risk of dying by suicide than those belonging to any other age group. In countries that report low or moderate rates of suicide in older people, under recognition, under reporting, and under responsiveness may be factors that impact the statistics collected. In countries like the UK, where suicide rates in older people have fallen in line with the national average, suicide in older people occurs ambiguously, may be hidden, or not considered a deliberate act. The introduction of specialist older adult teams and legal restrictions around access to firearms, has likely had some positive impact on the reduction in suicide rate in some older people since the 1980s in the UK. However, these factors may also mean that suicide in older people occurs in individuals who do not access mental health services, or who now use methods that do not appear to be deliberate attempts to die. Psycho-social differences in suicidal older adults are outlined. Older people with complex emotional needs are at greater risk of death by suicide, if they have been given a diagnosis of ‘avoidant’ or ‘obsessive compulsive personality disorder’. It is suggested that ‘overcontrol’ is an underlying psychological need that greatly increases the risk of death by suicide in older people. Identification and treatment of overcontrol is briefly discussed.

PREVALENȚA ȘI TIPURILE DE TULBURĂRI DE PERSONALITATE LA FEMEILE PRIVATE DE LIBERTATE

This article presents the results of an empirical study aimed at establishing the prevalence and types of personality disorders encountered among women in custody in Romanian prisons. It is important to emphasize that incarcerated women in Romania represent a category of inmates that has been insufficiently investigated regarding personality disorders. To date, there are no specific studies conducted among this group of inmates in Romania on this topic. The research sample consisted of definitively sentenced incarcerated women (N=200 respondents) serving their sentences in the only prison in Romania that exclusively houses women, distributed across all detention regimes. The SCID-II Personality Questionnaire was used, designed to identify and evaluate personality disorders according to the criteria of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition (DSM-IV). The percentage distribution shows that obsessive-compulsive (82%) and borderline (80%) personality disorders are among the most prevalent observed in incarcerated women included in this study. For other personality disorders, a prevalence ranging from 11,5% to 75% was observed. The result of this research have significant practical implications, providing a solid foundation for the development of specific intervention programs dedicated to this category. Thus, specialists in the penitentiary administration system can use this data to create programs based on a genuine understanding of these women`s profiles.

Group imagery imagery rescripting via telehealth decreases dysfunctional personality beliefs and the meta-emotional problem but does not increase positive self-compassion

Imagery rescripting (ImR) has shown to reduce negative belief about the self, negative emotions and emotional dysregulation. However, the mechanisms through which this improvement in emotion regulation takes place is currently the object of investigation. An untested hypothesis is that ImR reduces the negative emotional response to primary emotions (i.e. the Meta-emotional problem) associated to difficulties in emotional regulation. In this study, the researchers aimed to investigate the impact of group ImR delivered via telehealth on dysfunctional personality beliefs, the Meta-emotional problem, difficulties in emotional regulation, and self-compassion in a non-clinical sample of participants. A total of 45 community sample participants received three sessions of group ImR delivered via telehealth. Personality dysfunctional beliefs, meta-emotions, self-compassion and emotional dysregulation were measured before ImR and in three follow-up sessions. Dysfunctional personality beliefs, specifically those associated with the dependent, obsessive–compulsive, antisocial, and histrionic personality disorders, were significantly reduced after the ImR intervention. Additionally, the Meta-emotional problem and difficulties in emotional regulation were also reduced. Moreover, negative self-compassion showed a significant decrease after ImR, but positive self-compassion remained unchanged. These findings suggest that group ImR delivered via telehealth can effectively reduce negative beliefs about oneself, negative emotions, and emotional dysregulation. However, it seems that this intervention does not increase a more benevolent attitude towards oneself, possibly due to the less direct intervention of the therapist in the group telehealth setting. The researchers discuss the implications of these findings for clinical practice in a group telehealth context.

Childhood maltreatment and personality disorders in adolescents and adults with psychotic or non-psychotic disorders.

While the attention to personality disorders (PD) and childhood maltreatment (CM) has grown in recent years, there remains limited understanding of the prevalence and distinctions of PD and CM in clinical populations of Chinese adolescents in comparison to adults. A total of 1,417 participants were consecutively sampled from patients diagnosed with either psychotic or non-psychotic disorders in the psychiatric and psycho-counseling clinics at Shanghai Mental Health Center. The participants were categorized into two groups based on their age: adolescents (aged 15-21 years) and adults (aged 22-35 years). PDs were evaluated using a self-reported personality diagnostic questionnaire and a structured clinical interview, while CMs were assessed using the Chinese version of the Child Trauma Questionnaire Short Form. When comparing self-reported PD traits and CM between adolescents and adults, differences emerge. Adolescents, particularly in the psychotic disorder group, exhibit more pronounced schizotypal PD traits (p=0.029), and this pattern extends to non-psychotic disorders (p<0.001). Adolescents in the non-psychotic disorder group also report higher levels of emotional abuse (p=0.014), with a notable trend in physical abuse experiences compared to adults (p=0.057). Furthermore, the most prevalent PDs in the clinical sample are avoidant, borderline, and obsessive-compulsive PDs. Among patients with psychotic disorders, adolescents exhibit higher rates of schizoid, schizotypal, and obsessive-compulsive PDs compared to adults. Logistic regression analyses highlight distinct predictors for psychotic and non-psychotic disorders in adolescents and adults. The findings emphasize distinct differences in PDs and CMs between adolescent and adult groups, shedding light on their potential roles in psychotic and non-psychotic disorders.

Positive Psychology and Mental Health: Solving Problems of Positive Psychology from A New Perspective

Positive psychology tries to help people find happiness, hope, and life satisfaction within people’s lives. However, the approach of positive psychology might be inadequate. To reach all the positive sides, there need to be more negative sides to work with positive psychology because people may not have an accurate understanding of many mental disorders like obsessive-compulsive disorders or personality disorders. Telling them how problematic these mental disorders are might seem negative, but it will help people to have a better understanding of their own mental health. Forming the correct view of mental disorders will reduce stigma and help people with mental disorders reach out for help. Another problem with positive psychology is that many services related to this approach are driven by money, and the intentions might not be helpful for people who want to improve themselves. Possible causes of these problems might be related to the heavy money-related ideas led by Seligman, who is the most famous scientist in the area of positive psychology. Possible solutions might be related more to negative aspects of life in general because learning how to stay peaceful and happy during negative situations might be the only way to define true happiness. Based on the second wave of positive psychology, more attention is still needed to solve these problems by noticing how useful negative aspects of life are.