Observed Classroom Behavior Research Articles

Do Teachers’ Perceptions of High Cultural Responsiveness Predict Better Behavioral Outcomes for Students?

Teachers’ perceptions of high cultural responsiveness in the classroom may be related to positive behavioral outcomes (e.g., higher academic engagement, lower social risk), but little research has explored this possibility. This article addresses this research gap by building upon findings from a preliminary paper in which these relationships were evidenced. Specifically, we present two interrelated follow-up studies. Study 1 examined the relationship between ratings of 20 U.S. teachers on a measure of cultural responsiveness, the Double Check Self-Refection Tool, and students’ observed classroom behavior. Results from multilevel modeling indicated that higher Double Check scores significantly predicted higher academic engagement and lower disruptive behavior for 454 students observed. Study 2 investigated the relationship between ratings of 30 U.S. teachers on the Double Check Self-Refection Tool and ratings of 622 students’ risk on the Social, Academic, and Emotional Behavior Risk Screener (SAEBRS). Results indicated higher Double Check scores were associated with lower ratings of students’ social and emotional risk. Findings also indicated identification as a Black student and a student with a disability predicted teachers’ perceptions of higher risk, consistent with previous research. As results remain preliminary, implications include recommendations for additional research and high-quality professional development to promote teachers’ cultural responsiveness.

Examining the Development and Implementation of an Embedded, Multi-Semester Internship: Preliminary Perceptions of Teacher Education Candidates, Clinical Educators, and University Faculty

ABSTRACT Within the current educational context, educator preparation programs are under increasing pressure to demonstrate their effectiveness in producing teachers that impact P–12 student learning. As a result, programs must investigate organizational features that are powerful for preparing teacher candidates to enter the classroom. One facet is the clinical experience, which allows candidates to enact practices learned within the preparation program within an educational context. This article describes the development of an embedded, multi-semester internship that incorporated an intensive field experience delivered in partnership with a local district. It was theorized that the activities associated with the internship and the related partnership have the potential to be a powerful way to structure teacher learning to impact theory-practice connections and improve candidates’ efficacy for teaching and learning. Preliminary data collection in the form of surveys and focus group meetings have revealed positive outcomes, including perceptions of readiness to teach and the development of relationships between various stakeholders. Subsequent analyses will examine the impact on observable classroom behaviors, performance on the edTPA, and impact on teacher self-efficacy.

Creating Positive Learning Environments in Early Childhood Using Teacher-Generated Prosocial Lessons

A primary motivation for people to behave as they do is the need to belong socially to a group and to have relevance. A positive learning environment for young students is created when students are recognized and accepted by their peers and their teachers, and studies reveal that in such environments, students perform better academically and tend to have fewer behavioral issues. These environments may also act as a buffer against school dropout rates. This study examined whether teaching prosocial lessons to first-grade students in the southeastern United States would create positive learning environments for children who otherwise may not be recognized and accepted by their peers and also examined the relationship of teacher evaluations of observable classroom behaviors by their students with student recognition by peers. This study confirms the relevance of prosocial lessons in the creation of positive learning environments for young students.

Executive control goes to school: Implications of preschool executive performance for observed elementary classroom learning engagement.

The transition to elementary school is accompanied by increasing demands for children to regulate their attention and behavior within the classroom setting. Executive control (EC) may be critical for meeting these demands; however, few studies have rigorously examined the association between EC and observed classroom behavior. This study examined EC in preschool (age 5 years 3 months) as a predictor of classroom learning engagement behaviors in first grade, using a battery of performance-based EC tasks and live classroom observations in a longitudinal sample of 313 children. Multilevel modeling results indicated that stronger EC predicted more focused engagement and fewer task management and competing responses, controlling for socioeconomic status, child sex, and age at observations. Results suggest that early EC may support subsequent classroom engagement behaviors that are critical for successful transition to elementary school and long-term learning trajectories. (PsycINFO Database Record

Comprehensive School Physical Activity Programming and Classroom Behavior.

The purpose of this study was to examine the effect of a comprehensive school physical activity program (CSPAP) on classroom behavior in low-income children. The participants included 1460 children recruited from 3 low-income schools receiving governmental financial assistance. A total of 77 classrooms were observed across grades K through 6. Classrooms were observed one week prior to the implementation of CSPAP and at 6 weeks and 12 weeks after commencement of the program. Members of the research team observed classroom behavior using systematic observation, specifically a 5-second momentary time sampling procedure. A generalized linear mixed effects model was used to determine the change in odds of a classroom achieving at least 80% on-task behavior following the implementation of CSPAP. There were 7.49 (95% CI: 2.83, 19.79) greater odds of a classroom achieving 80% on-task behavior at 6 weeks compared to baseline and a 27.93 (95% CI: 7.93, 98.29) greater odds of a classroom achieving 80% on-task behavior at 12 weeks compared to baseline (p < .001). After the CSPAP was implemented, on-task classroom behavior significantly improved across all grade levels.

Teacher and TA Ratings of Preschoolers’ Externalizing Behavior

The present study investigated teachers’ and teacher aides’ (TAs) agreement in their ratings of preschoolers’ externalizing behavior and their associations with observed classroom behavior for a sample of children at risk of developing a disruptive behavior disorder. One hundred twenty-two teachers rated 360 students’ externalizing behavior in the first month of school, and within the next 6 weeks, children were observed in their classroom. Results indicated that teacher and TA reports were moderately correlated, teacher-rated severity of oppositional defiant disorder behaviors was related to agreement, and teacher/TA agreement did not predict observed externalizing behavior. In general, using teacher and TA ratings together versus a single informant’s rating did not provide a better estimate of information gathered from observational measures. Results demonstrate the importance of gathering observations and rating scales when evaluating preschoolers’ externalizing problems. Future work should explore factors that contribute to teachers’, TAs’, and observational methods’ differential evaluations of externalizing behavior.

Personal FM systems for children with autism spectrum disorders (ASD) and/or attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD): An initial investigation

The goal of this initial investigation was to examine the potential benefit of a frequency modulation (FM) system for 11 children diagnosed with autism spectrum disorders (ASD), attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), or both disorders through measures of speech recognition performance in noise, observed classroom behavior, and teacher-rated educational risk and listening behaviors. Use of the FM system resulted in significant average improvements in speech recognition in noise for the children with ASD and ADHD as well as large effect sizes. When compared to typically functioning peers, children with ASD and ADHD had significantly poorer average speech recognition performance in noise without the FM system but comparable average performance when the FM system was used. Similarly, classroom observations yielded a significant increase in on-task behaviors and large effect sizes when the FM system was in use during two separate trial periods. Although teacher ratings on questionnaires showed no significant improvement in the average level of educational risk of participants, they did indicate significant improvement in average listening behaviors during two trial periods with the FM system. Given the significantly better speech recognition in noise, increased on-task behaviors, and improved teacher ratings of listening behaviors with the FM system, these devices may be a viable option for children who have ASD and ADHD in the classroom. However, an individual evaluation including audiological testing and a functional evaluation in the child's primary learning environment will be necessary to determine the benefit of an FM system for a particular student.Learning Outcomes: 1. The reader will be able to describe the potential benefit of FM systems for children with ASD and/or ADHD. 2. The reader will be able to identify on-task versus off-task listening behaviors in children with ASD and/or ADHD. 3. The reader will be able to explain the components of a successful pre-fit education program that may be necessary prior to fitting an FM system in children with ASD.

Methylphenidate in Children With ADHD With or Without Learning Disability

Objective: To explore treatment response to Osmotic Release Oral System® (OROS) methylphenidate in children with ADHD with and without comorbid learning disability (LD). Method: Data were analyzed from two 6-week, double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled, crossover studies evaluating individually determined doses of OROS methylphenidate versus placebo in 135 children (ages 9 to 12 years) with ADHD with or without an LD in reading, math, or both. The sample was demographically diverse, with 31% females and more than 40% minority, predominantly African American and Hispanic. On two laboratory school days, participants received either OROS methylphenidate or placebo and were given a battery of cognitive and behavioral tests. Results: Treatment with OROS methylphenidate led to improvement in ADHD Rating Scale scores for participants with or without comorbid LD. Both groups performed better during treatment with OROS methylphenidate than placebo on measures of cognitive skills (i.e., Test of Variables of Attention, Finger Windows Backwards), academically related tasks (i.e., Dynamic Indicators of Basic Early Literacy Skills, Test of Handwriting Skills–Revised, Permanent Product Math Test), and observed classroom behavior (i.e., Swanson, Kotkin, Alger, M-Flynn, and Pelham Scale). Conclusion: In children with ADHD with or without comorbid LD, behavior and performance improved during treatment with OROS methylphenidate.

Tutorial teaching assistants in the classroom: Similar teaching behaviors are supported by varied beliefs about teaching and learning

As part of a long-term program to develop effective, research-based professional development programs for physics graduate student teaching assistants TAs, we first identify their current classroom practices and why they engage in these practices. In this paper, we identify a set of teaching practices we call “focusing on indicators,” which occurs when TAs use signs such as key words or diagrams as evidence that students understand the target idea; these indicators are more superficial than a detailed explanation. Our primary finding is that although the three TAs discussed here share a common behavior, the beliefs and motivations that underlie this behavior vary. We argue that TA professional development focused on changing these TAs’ focus-on-indicator behavior is unlikely to be effective. Instead, responsive TA professional development will need to address the TAs’ beliefs that guide the observed classroom behavior.

The role of children's ethnicity in the relationship between teacher ratings of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and observed classroom behavior.

Significant ethnic differences have been consistently documented on attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) teacher rating scales. Whether these ethnic differences result from a teacher rating bias or reflect actual classroom behavior patterns is unknown. Ethnic differences between Caucasian and African American (AA) elementary schoolchildren on teacher ratings and codings of observed classroom behavior were examined with latent variables. In structural equation models, correlations between teacher ratings and observed classroom behavior suggested nonbiased teacher ratings of AA schoolchildren with diagnosed ADHD. Ethnic differences were documented for both teacher ratings of ADHD and classroom behavior. Differences in classroom behavior were attenuated when the behavior of an average child in the classroom was taken into account. Multiple explanations for this pattern of results are discussed.

Observed classroom behavior of children with ADHD: relationship to gender and comorbidity.

Examined hypothesized gender and comorbidity differences in the observed classroom behavior of children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). The behavior of 403 boys and 99 girls with ADHD, ages 7-10, was compared (a) to observed, sex-specific classroom behavior norms, (b) by sex, and (c) by comorbid subgroups. Boys and girls with ADHD deviated significantly from classroom norms on 15/16 and 13/16 categories, respectively. Compared to comparison girls, girls with ADHD had relatively high rates of verbal aggression to children. Boys with ADHD engaged in more rule-breaking and externalizing behaviors than did girls with ADHD, but the sexes did not differ on more "neutral," unobtrusive behaviors. The sex differences are consistent with notions of why girls with ADHD are identified and referred later than boys. Contrary to hypothesis, the presence of comorbid anxiety disorder (ANX) was not associated with behavioral suppression; yet, as hypothesized, children with a comorbid disruptive behavior disorder (DBD) had higher rates of rule-breaking, and impulsive and aggressive behavior, than did children with ADHD alone and those with ADHD+ANX. Elevated rates of ADHD behaviors were also observed in children with comorbid DBD, indicating that these behaviors are truly present and suggesting that reports of higher ADHD ratings in this subgroup are not simply a consequence of negative halo effects and rater biases.

Unlocking the Knowledge in Action of an Expert Practitioner

A century ago, John Dewey alerted the teaching profession to the need for interventions in the learning-to-teach processes that foster the development of student teachers' knowledge-inaction. Dewey suggested that student teachers should be involved in reflective inquiry to develop an understanding of what takes place when learning actually occurs. He believed the observation of the teaching practice of others vital for student teachers' professional development. Such observation, however, should be tempered with the view to recognizing how the minds of the teacher and students interact (Dewey, 1904/1974c). Observation alone has a danger of focusing only on observable classroom behaviors. Student teachers may limit their practices to imitating or cloning, devoid of insight and initiative. They may lack understanding of the educational principles guiding effective teaching practice. Dewey argued that students with access to the thinking and pedagogical goals underlying observable teaching behaviors will utilize their knowledge of content and educational and psychological principles to become more knowing. Becoming more knowing requires that students make judgments and decisions about teaching practice. Rather than imitating or cloning, students would be engaged in intelligent action (Dewey, 1904/1974c). Dewey called for closer attention to the process of learning to teach, the essential relations between theory and practice, and the ways in which student teachers could develop the knowing of effective classroom teaching (1904/1974c). Learning to teach effectively requires that student teachers access the minds, not only the observable behaviors, of effective teachers. How best to prepare individuals for the complex and multifaceted profession of teaching continues to challenge those concerned with preservice teacher education. Student teachers, during the learning-to-teach process, participate in two distinct learning contexts. On-campus university classes involve students in the study of educational theory, curriculum design and development, psychology of learning, and teaching strategies and classroom management. During school-based practicum experiences, student teachers observe and practice various teaching approaches, skills, and techniques. Despite the commitment of teacher education institutions to providing effective preservice programs, research all too often reveals that student teachers engage in apprenticeship practica where they model teaching practice on the observable behaviors of supervising teachers. Only tenuous links exist between beginning teachers' theoretical and procedural knowledge of teaching. As student teachers gain more classroom experience during practicum, they often fail to build on the learning and understandings from their on-campus university classes. Instead, they perceive that much of the formal on-campus course work appears irrelevant when viewed from the perspective of classroom practice (Bromme & Tillema, 1995; Russell, 1987, 1988, 1989). Practicum experiences result typically in student teachers being left to intuit the pedagogical principles underlying effective classroom practice. One way to reconcile the dilemma of the theory-practice nexus is to examine and make explicit the typically tacit understandings of both beginning and expert teachers. The intervention we describe in this article brought together the stimulated recall of an expert teacher's thinking and the collegial reflections of a group of student teachers. We report one stage of a qualitative study involving the development, implementation, and evaluation of a cognitive intervention in preservice teacher education. The larger study comprised a yearlong program of interactive workshops conducted with nine preservice student teachers enrolled in a 1-year graduate diploma of education course at an urban university in Australia. The underlying goal of the program was to assist student teachers in reconciling the theoretical and practical knowledge of teaching. …

Ontogeny of School Failure: Classification of First-Grade Children

The ontogeny of school failure was addressed by examining the characteristics of 112 first-grade children, 63 of whom were considered at risk for school failure. Measures of achievement, intelligence, behavior, language, and learning potential were used with cluster analysis techniques to identify six empirically derived clusters that were replicated across two samples. Three profiles represented variations of normal performance, and three represented atypical patterns suggestive of learning disabilities, mild mental retardation, and language problems. These interpretations were validated by cluster differences on the degree of risk for referral, observed classroom behavior, and achievement variables not used in the cluster analysis. The variability of skills evident across the clusters, in addition to the composition of the clusters, suggested that teachers cope with a high degree of heterogeneity in their classrooms, that their referrals are not based solely on one dimension of children’s psychometric performance, and that certain multivariate profiles are associated with higher risk of referral. By capturing this variability it may be possible to design interventions that ameliorate the risk of failure for some groups of children.

Ontogeny of School Failure: Classification of First-Grade Children

The ontogeny of school failure was addressed by examining the characteristics of 112 first-grade children, 63 of whom were considered at risk for school failure. Measures of achievement, intelligence, behavior, language, and learning potential were used with cluster analysis techniques to identify six empirically derived clusters that were replicated across two samples. Three profiles represented variations of normal performance, and three represented atypical patterns suggestive of learning disabilities, mild mental retardation, and language problems. These interpretations were validated by cluster differences on the degree of risk for referral, observed classroom behavior, and achievement variables not used in the cluster analysis. The variability of skills evident across the clusters, in addition to the composition of the clusters, suggested that teachers cope with a high degree of heterogeneity in their classrooms, that their referrals are not based solely on one dimension of children’s psychometric performance, and that certain multivariate profiles are associated with higher risk of referral. By capturing this variability it may be possible to design interventions that ameliorate the risk of failure for some groups of children.

The Cost of Avoiding Research: a view from the USA

Abstract Like many others, the author believes that any reforms in teacher preparation should be based on the findings of empirical research, and she notes the political importance of a scientific base to the teaching profession. Current policies and procedures in USA vary across states and across campuses, with no empirical justification for any. The evaluation tools used in most teacher training programs are inadequate, in light of what we are beginning to understand about the cognitive skills that underlie the observable classroom behaviors of teachers. The author outlines one possible agenda inspired by studies of teachers' cognitions and by research on problem‐solving. However, if the professional experiences of the author are typical, the majority of the faculty in ‘teaching’ colleges of education are apathetic or resistant to participation in applied research. Ironically, the most important consumers and the chief beneficiaries of applied research on teacher preparation ‐‐ i.e. teacher educators ‐‐...

Agreement between teachers' ratings and observations of hyperactivity, inattentiveness, and defiance.

The relationship of directly observed classroom behavior and teacher ratings on questionnaires with a judgemental (Conners Teacher Rating Scale) or operational format was examined for 33 boys aged 6 years 5 months to 7 years 7 months. Results showed a high degree of association between observed and rated behavior. This association did not vary with the format of the rating scales but did vary with the nature of the behavior being rated. Defiance was more reliably rated than hyperactivity or inattentiveness. Several behaviors exerted a halo effect on ratings of hyperactivity, inattentiveness, and behavior problems. In particular, defiance toward a teacher increased the likelihood that a child would be rated as hyperactive or inattentive regardless of his observed level of activity or attentiveness. These results support the validity of behavior rating scales as screening measures for hyperactivity, inattentiveness, and defiance and indicate that a child's defiance and disobedience are significant causes of misclassification.

Classroom teaching behaviors related to college teaching effectiveness

AbstractCollege teaching effectiveness, as perceived by students, can be predicted from specific, observable classroom behaviors of the instructor and can be improved through feedback and training procedures designed to modify these behaviors.

Differences between Learning Disabled and Non-Learning Disabled Children in Temperament and Behavior

Thirty-five learning disabled third and sixth graders were compared with matched peers using teacher ratings of temperament, problem behavior, and observed classroom behavior. Initial correlations between three temperament factors—task orientation, personal-social flexibility, and reactivity—and other measures demonstrated moderate relationships with teacher ratings of behavior. Group differences were significant on the first temperament factor, task orientation, as well as teacher ratings of several problem behaviors, with each difference favoring the non-LD group. While the MANOVA for observed off-task behavior was not significant, one univariate test of passive off-task time suggested selective impairment for the LD group on this particular behavior.

Are teachers' beliefs incongruent with their observed classroom behavior?

The study forcuses on an on-going question of whether teachers' beliefs are incongruent with their observed classroom behavior. The setting for the study is a Protestant high school in a large southwestern city. In particular, two teachers are studied. Elicitational questioning and classroom observations are used as procedural methods for data collection. Congruency/incongruency is determined qualitatively, i.e., by comparing observed patterns of teacher classroom behavior with their elicited beliefs. Findings indicate that congruent and incongruent beliefs must be understood in terms of a clustering effect of beliefs in belief systems. Moreover, such findings can be used in understanding teacher decision making processes and classroom teaching strategies.

Relationships among Observed Classroom Behavior and Three Types of Teacher Ratings

The purpose of this study was to investigate the relationship between teachers' ratings of their students' behavior and direct observational data. The subjects for the study were 63 male pupils from eight first-grade classrooms. The O'Leary, Kaufman, Kass, &amp; Drabman (1970) disruptive behavior code was used to collect observational data during a 3-week period. Teachers were asked to rate each child on three rating scales: the Quay-Peterson Behavior Problem Checklist, the Miller School Behavior Checklist, and a scale involving frequency estimates of the nine O'Leary et al. code behaviors. Data analysis revealed considerable independence of the major types of measurement (direct behavioral observation vs. global ratings). The findings are discussed in terms of their implications for the assessment of children in classroom settings.