Object Counting Research Articles

Bio-pulsating architecture for object-based processing in next generation vision systems

A novel and robust distributed architecture for real-time object-based processing is presented for tasks such as object size, centre and count determination. This approach uses the input image to enclose a feedback loop and realise a data-driven pulsating action, ideally suited for implementation in standard CMOS technologies.

The relationship between individual histologic features and disease progression in idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis.

We have retrospectively studied 53 patients with idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis and a histologic diagnosis of usual interstitial pneumonia and evaluated the prognostic significance of four individual histologic features (fibroblastic foci [FF], interstitial mononuclear cell infiltrate, established fibrosis, and intra-alveolar macrophages) using a semiquantitative scale of 0-6. An objective count of FF was also undertaken. Using weighted kappa coefficients, interobserver agreement between pathologists was moderate to good (0.56-0.76). Subjective and objective FF scores were strongly associated (R(S) = 0.88, < 0.00005). Mortality was independently linked to a high FF score, p = 0.006, and a low percent predicted carbon monoxide diffusing capacity (DL(CO)), p = 0.01. For pulmonary function, on univariate analysis, the strongest correlations were observed between increasing interstitial mononuclear cell infiltrate or FF scores and greater declines in forced vital capacity (FVC) or DL(CO) at 6 months. Multivariate models revealed that increasing FF scores were independently associated with greater declines in FVC and DL(CO) at both 6 and 12 months. Increasing interstitial mononuclear cell infiltrate scores were also independently linked to functional decline, but only at 6 months. These data suggest a reproducible method on biopsy for predicting rate of disease progression in patients with idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis.

Counting in Sign Language

Do the visuomanual modality and the structure of the sequence of numbers in sign language have an impact on the development of counting and its use by deaf children? The sequence of number signs in Belgian French Sign Language follows a base-5 rule while the number sequence in oral French follows a base-10 rule. The accuracy and use of sequence number string were investigated in hearing children varying in age from 3 years 4 months to 5 years 8 months and in deaf children varying in age from 4 years to 6 years 2 months. Three tasks were used: abstract counting, object counting, and creation of sets of a given cardinality. Deaf children exhibited age-related lags in their knowledge of the number sequence; they made different errors from those of hearing children, reflecting the rule-bound nature of sign language. Remarkably, their performance in object counting and creating sets of given cardinality was similar to that of hearing children who had a longer sequence number string, indicating a better use of counting than predicted by their knowledge of the linguistic sequence of numbers.

Color, Relativism, and Realism

It is plausible to think that some animals perceive the world as coloreddifferently from the way humans perceive it. I argue that the best way ofaccommodating this fact is to adopt perceiver-relativism, the view that colorpredicates express relations between objects and types of perceivers.Perceiver-relativism makes no claim as to the identity of color properties;it is compatible with both physicalism and dispositionalism. I arguehowever for a response-dependence version of it according to which an object counts as red (for a type of perceiver) iff it standardly looks red to normal perceivers (of that type). Finally, I develop a notion of minimal realism on which this account counts as realist despite its subjectivist elements, in that it is committed to the objectivityof truth.

The application of Poisson units to the determination of median lethal cell culture dose

The median lethal cell culture dose (CCLD 50) and its 95% confidence interval were determined using the Behrens and Kärber area method with subsequent regression analysis by the action of methylmercury iodide (CH 3HgI; MMI) on monolayer cultures of HeLa cells. The concentrations of MMI were 0.45, 0.9, 1.8, 3.65, 7.3 and 14.6 μ m/l. The duration of MMI action was 24 h. All the calculations were performed with means of sample cell numbers derived from Poisson units. The basis for deriving the Poisson units is the Poisson distribution property on the equality mean to variance or, which is the same, on the equality standard deviation to the root square of mean. Because the size of Poisson unit is predetermined, it is a simple task to find the mean. The outcome of any single count of discrete random objects in the definite area or time interval is divided by the number of Poisson units. The Poisson unit for counting cultured cells was derived by us in relation to Gorjaev's net. In this case it is appropriate to count the cells on the square equal to two Gorjaev's nets. The corresponding Poisson unit is equal to 1/5 of Gorjaev's net (45 big squares). Near-coincidence of CCLD 50 as well as its 95% confidence intervals by use of logarithmic and linear models was observed. However, the former approach was better than the second. CCLD 50 and its 95% confidence interval values, obtained with the aid of the logarithmic model in three series of experiments, were 2.56±0.33, 2.09±0.37 and 2.31±0.37 μ m/l.

Occlusion Culling in Large Virtual Environments

In this paper, occlusion testing in very large virtual environments is discussed from two perspectives: a theoretical one, discussing occlusion culling in relation to detail elision (level of detail), and a practical one, relating to an adaptive occlusion-culling algorithm developed in this paper. The theoretical perspective formally demonstrates the efficiency of detail elision in the face of real-world-like environments. It further shows the utility of using detail elision not only to lower the triangle count of individual objects but also to lower the load on the scene graph traversal algorithm. Finally, the results indicate that, even in open environments, one needs occlusion culling and that approaches based on choosing only a few good (convex) occluders are insufficient in this case. Practically, the theoretical perspective is reflected in the development of an occlusion-culling algorithm based on a marriage of the frustum-slicing approach to view frustum culling and hierarchical occlusion maps (HOMs). The resulting algorithm is much simpler than the original HOM algorithm, requires little pre-processing, and integrates detail elision with the occlusion-culling algorithm in a natural way. The approach is well suited for use with large, complex models with a long mean free line of sight (“the great outdoors”), models for which it is not feasible to construct, or search, a database of occluders to be rendered in each frame. The algorithm is tested for such large models, and results show that frame rates tend to converge as the geometrical complexity of the model increases.

The Taurus Tunable Filter Field Galaxy Survey: Sample Selection and Narrowband Number Counts

Recent evidence suggests a decline in the volume-averaged star formation rate (SFR) with the advance of cosmic time since z ~ 1. It is not clear, however, the extent to which the selection of such samples influences the measurement of this quantity. Using the Taurus Tunable Filter (TTF) we have obtained an emission-line sample of faint star-forming galaxies over comparable look-back times: the TTF Field Galaxy Survey. By selecting through emission lines, we are screening galaxies through a quantity that scales directly with star formation activity for a given choice of initial mass function. The scanning narrowband technique furnishes a galaxy sample that differs from traditional broadband-selected surveys in both its volume-limited nature and selection of galaxies through emission-line flux. Three discrete wavelength intervals are covered, centered at Hα redshifts z = 0.08, 0.24, and 0.39. Galaxy characteristics are presented and comparisons made with existing surveys of both broadband and emission-line selection. Little overlap is found in a direct comparison between the TTF Field Galaxy Survey and a traditional galaxy redshift survey, as a result of the respective volume and flux limitations of each. When the number counts of emission-line objects are compared with those expected on the basis of existing Hα surveys, we find an excess of ~3 times at the faintest limits. While these detections are yet to be confirmed independently, inspection of the stronger subsample of galaxies detected in both the line and continuum (line-on-continuum subsample; 13%) is sufficient to support an excess population. The faintest objects are galaxies with little or no continuum, rendering them undetectable by conventional redshift surveys. This increase in the emission-line field population implies higher star formation densities over z ≲ 0.4. However, further study in the form of multiobject spectroscopic follow-up is necessary to quantify this and confirm the faintest detections in the sample.

Rethinking Kant on Individuation

In the section of the Critique of Pure Reason entitled The Amphiboly of Concepts of Reflection Kant writes:Suppose that an object is exhibited to us repeatedly but always with the same intrinsic determinations (qualitas et quantitas). In that case, if the object counts as object of pure understanding then it is always the same object, and is not many but only one thing (i.e., we have numerica identitas). But if the object is appearance, then comparison of concepts does not matter at all; rather, however much everything regarding these concepts may be the same, yet the difference of locations of these appearances at the same time is a sufficient basis for the numerical difference of the object (of the senses) itself. Thus in the case of two drops of water we can abstract completely from all intrinsic difference (of quality and quantity), and their being intuited simultaneously in different locations is enough for considering them to be numerically different.

Possible star formation in the halo of NGC 253

We present a deep UBV survey in the direction of the halo of the starburst galaxy NGC 253 aimed at investigating the possible existence of recent star formation far from its disk, as traced by early-type stars. We discuss different classes of objects with blue colors that may contaminate the region of color-color and color-magnitude diagrams occupied by early Population I stars at the distance of NGC 253. Strong upper limits are found on their contribution to the measured object counts by means of models, of surveys of the halo of our Galaxy, and of observations of nearby control fields. A population of objects with $(B-V) 23$ is identified in the direction of the halo of NGC 253 that has no counterpart in the control fields to a high level of statistical confidence. The absolute magnitudes of these objects at the distance of NGC 253 is consistent with them being main sequence B0-B2 stars. The spatial distribution of the bluest objects in the halo of NGC 253 seems to cluster in two groups: one is closer to the disk of NGC 253, and may contain runaway stars expelled from its disk. The other group has projected distances to the plane of the galaxy ranging between 9 and 15 kpc, and at least its base coincides with a peak in radio continuum due to synchrotron emission of cosmic rays escaping the galactic disk. We hypothesize that the distant group of blue stars in the halo of NGC 253 is a result of the interaction between the superwind produced at its nuclear starburst (and perhaps also in star forming regions in the disk) and cold gas in the halo, in a phenomenon similar to the star formation near Centaurus A induced by the interaction of its jet with a HI cloud. If this is the case, NGC 253 provides an example of the ability of less energetic galactic outflows to trigger star formation in haloes, a phenomenon that may also be responsible for the suspected existence of Population I stars at large distances from the disk of the Milky Way.

The Kuiper Belt and Olbers's Paradox

We investigate the constraints that Olbers's paradox, applied to the zodiacal background as measured from space, sets on outer solar system objects. If extended to very faint limits, R ~ 40-50 mag, the steep optical number counts of Kuiper Belt objects (KBOs) at R 26 imply an infinitely bright night sky. Small KBOs with radii of r ~ 1 μm to r ~ 1 km must have a size distribution n(r) ∝ r-a, with a ~ 3.4 or smaller to satisfy the known limits on the sky-surface brightness at optical and far-infrared wavelengths. Improved limits on the measured KBO surface brightness can yield direct estimates of the albedo, temperature, and size distribution for small KBOs in the outer solar system.

Counting and cardinal understanding in children with Down syndrome and typically developing children.

This study compares the procedural counting ability (independently and with parental support) and conceptual understanding of cardinality of a group of children with Down syndrome and a group of typically developing children, matched for non-verbal mental age. Participants were 23 children with Down syndrome (chronological age range: 3.5-7 years; mental age range: 2.5-4 years) and 20 typically developing children (chronological age range: 2-4 years; mental age range: 2.5-4 years), and their main caregiver. The children were asked to count sets of toys (assessing procedural counting skills) and to give sets of toys (assessing understanding of cardinality), with set sizes between 2 and 18 items. The counting task was performed in two conditions, with and without parental support. The children were also asked to say the count word sequence aloud, to assess sequence production independent from object counting. The typically developing children produced significantly more number words altogether, longer standard number sequences and could count larger sets than the children with Down syndrome. Support from an adult improved performance on the count task significantly for both groups of children, and there was no significant difference between the groups in the degree of improvement, i.e. the zone of proximal development. No significant differences were found between the frequency of children (approximately one third) in each group who used counting to solve the give task, indicating an understanding of cardinality.

Estimation support by lexical analysis of requirements documents

Estimation of the effort required for a software project is difficult. Various means are used, but most rely on some expert assessment of the individual requirements and their implications. A method of supporting this assessment for object-oriented developments is described. Lexical analysis of a draft requirements specification can be used to identify individual objects which will translate directly into the final implementation. These object counts can then be used to provide ‘first-cut’ effort estimates, using historical information from previous projects. Experiments were conducted on a problem implemented by student project teams. The results show that the untrained domain-independent automated noun and technical term finding programs used were no worse than the typical student group in deriving problem-space objects, and that these object counts provided a reasonable indicator to the effort required. Further work in this area is discussed.

Determining chemical rate coefficients using time-gated fluorescence correlation spectroscopy

In recent years, fluorescence correlation spectroscopy (FCS) has become an important technique for studying dynamic processes of molecules in thermodynamic equilibrium. Fluorescent organic molecules are excited by laser light, and the emitted light quanta from a small number of molecules in a volume of ∼1 fl are collected using a high numerical aperture microscope objective and photon counting detection. Translational and rotational diffusion, chemical reactions (including photochemistry) and conformational changes of the molecules give rise to temporal correlations in the fluorescence intensity fluctuations that can be revealed by autocorrelation analysis. A method is presented to improve the sensitivity of FCS measurements on samples containing multiple fluorescent species. Using pulsed laser excitation in conjunction with electronic gating in the detection channel, we preferentially suppress the emission from the short lifetime components by fluorescence lifetime separation. We demonstrate the usefulness of this technique by applying it to the binding reaction of the organic dye 1-anilino-8-naphthalenesulfonic acid in the interior of the small globular protein apomyoglobin. When studying this chemical reaction with FCS, a relaxation component appears in the autocorrelation function which can be enhanced by the time gating technique. Furthermore, the analysis is considerably simplified and both kinetic and equilibrium coefficients of the reaction can be determined. Copyright © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Validation of in situ object counting system (ISOCS) mathematical efficiency calibration software

The ISOCS calibration method is a convenient tool for calibrating the detector efficiency as a function of energy for a wide variety of source geometries and activity distributions. The ISOCS method consists of a Canberra characterization of the detector, user input of source geometry data, and the ISOCS software which uses these to produce the efficiency calibration. During the characterization, an MCNP model of the detector is developed. The model is then independently validated using measurements with a NIST traceable source. Given the validated model, the response characteristics of the detector are mapped out to cover any location inside a sphere of radius 50 m, centered on the detector, and over a photon energy range of 50 keV–7 MeV. The ISOCS software contains a series of mathematical models that can simulate a wide variety of sample shapes. The software divides each source region into a number of voxels. Inside each voxel, a point location is defined in a quasi-random fashion. At a given energy, the detector efficiency is calculated for each voxel, taking into account the attenuation due to absorbers both inside and outside the source. The efficiencies for all the voxels are summed up at the given energy. To determine the accuracy of this calibration method, a large number of tests (about 109) were performed. In each of these tests, a reference efficiency calibration was compared to an ISOCS efficiency calibration at the same geometry. The reference calibration was either from a full MCNP calculation, or from a multi-energy radioactive source. The tests were categorized into three different counting geometries, namely, Field, Laboratory, and Collimated geometry. The data for each geometry were further divided into low energy (<150 keV) and intermediate to high-energy (>150 keV) groups. The mean ratio of ISOCS/True efficiencies was (i) 1.01±0.007 for the Field geometries, (ii) 0.97±0.007 for the Laboratory geometries, and (iii) 1.09±0.014 for the Collimated geometries. By analyzing the relative uncertainties in the True efficiencies, and the relative standard deviation in the ratios, the average relative standard deviation due to ISOCS is estimated to be 6.5%, 5.4%, and 10.5%, for the Field, Laboratory, and Collimated geometries, respectively. Various sources of bias affecting the data have been identified from this validation process. Improvements have been made in the characterization process and in the algorithms, which will be implemented in future versions of the ISOCS efficiency calibration software.

Poka-Yoke Process Controller: Designed for Individuals with Cognitive Impairments

Poka-yoke is a Japanese term meaning “error proofing.” Poka-yoke techniques were developed to achieve zero defects in manufacturing and assembly processes. The application of these techniques tends to reduce both the physical and cognitive demands of tasks and thereby make them more accessible. Poka-yoke interventions create a dialogue between the worker and the process, and this dialogue provides the feedback necessary for workers to prevent errors. For individuals with cognitive impairments, weighing and counting tasks can be difficult or impossible. Interventions that provide sufficient feedback to workers without disabilities tend to be too subtle for workers with cognitive impairments; hence, the feedback must be enhanced. The Poka-Yoke Controller (PYC) was designed to assist individuals with counting and weighing tasks. The PYC interfaces to an Ohaus™ CT6000 digital scale for weighing parts and for counting parts by weight. It also interfaces to sensors and switches for object counting tasks. The PYC interfaces to a variety of programmable voice output devices so that voice feedback or prompting can be provided at specific points in the weighing or counting process. The PYC can also be interfaced to conveyor systems, indexed turntables, and other material handling systems for coordinated counting and material handling operations. In all of our applications to date, we have observed improved worker performance, improved process quality, and greater worker independence. These observed benefits have also significantly reduced the need for staff intervention. The process controller is described and three applications are presented: a weighing task and two counting applications.

An Optical Near‐Infrared Study of Radio‐loud Quasar Environments. I. Methods and z = 1–2 Observations

We have conducted an optical/near-infrared study of the environments of radio-loud quasars (RLQs) at redshifts z = 0.6-2.0. In this paper we discuss the sample selection and observations for the z = 1.0-2.0 subsample and the reduction and cataloging techniques used. We discuss technical issues at some length, since few detailed descriptions of near-IR data reduction and multicolor object cataloging are currently available in single literature references. Our sample of 33 RLQs contains comparable numbers of flat and steep radio spectrum sources and sources of various radio morphologies and spans a similar range of Mabs and Prad, which allows us to disentangle dependence of environment on optical or radio luminosity from redshift evolution. We use the standard shift-and-stare method of creating deep mosaicked images in which the exposure time (and thus the rms noise) at each pixel is not constant across the mosaic. An unusual feature of our reduction procedure is the creation of images with constant rms noise from such mosaics. We adopted this procedure to enable use of the FOCAS detection package over almost the entire mosaic instead of only in the area of deepest observation where the rms noise is constant, thereby roughly doubling our areal coverage. We correct the object counts in our fields for stellar contamination using the SKY model of Cohen and compare the galaxy counts to those in random fields. Even after accounting for possible systematic magnitude offsets, we find a significant excess of K 19 galaxies. Analysis and discussion of this excess population is presented by Hall & Green.

Serial attention within working memory.

It is proposed that people are limited to attending to just one "object" in working memory (WM) at any one time. Consequently, many cognitive tasks, and much of everyday thought, necessitate switches between WM items. The research to be presented measured the time involved in switching attention between objects in WM and sought to elaborate the processes underlying such switches. Two experiments required subjects to maintain two running counts; the order in which the counts were updated necessitated frequent switches between them. Even after intensive practice, a time cost was incurred when subjects updated the two counts in succession, relative to updating the same count twice. This time cost was interpreted as being due to a distinct switching mechanism that controls an internal focus of attention large enough for just one object (count) at a time. This internal focus of attention is a subset of WM (Cowan, 1988). Alternative visual and conceptual repetition-priming and memory retrieval explanations for the cost involved in switching between items in WM are addressed.

A New Approach to Assess Viability of Adult Cardiomyocytes: Computer-Assisted Image Analysis

Objective:to develop a computerized procedure to obtain the percentage of rod-shaped cells in preparations of isolated adult cardiomyocytes.Methods:(1) isolated adult rat myocytes were either pretreated with a fixative (0.2% glutaraldehyde, 0.25% Triton X-100 and 0.1% trypan blue) or monitored via phase-contrast optics without fixation; (2) an image field with several hundred cells was captured by a microscope-mounted video camera, which was connected to a frame grabber, and saved as a TIFF file; (3) the image was processed using Mocha software. Analysis consisted of setting the image threshold, an object count, automatic measurements of objects and their classification.Results:though the software could measure many geometrical characteristics, a combination of two parameters, object size and shape factor, was found to be the most efficient. With these parameters, four classes of sample objects were constructed including rod-shaped myocytes, round damaged cells, overlapping cell clusters, and small debris. Test objects were classified automatically based on which sample object their parameters matched the most. Excellent correlation was obtained between manual counts and computer analysis of cell viability (r=0.98).Conclusion:a more efficient method, based on computer-assisted classification of objects, has been developed to assess the viability of isolated adult cardiomyocytes.

Automatic quantification of microvessels using unsupervised image analysis.

An automatic method for quantification of images of microvessels by computing area proportions and number of objects is presented. The objects are segmented from the background using dynamic thresholding of the average component size histogram. To be able to count the objects, fragmented objects are connected, all objects are filled, and touching objects are separated using a watershed segmentation algorithm.The method is fully automatic and robust with respect to illumination and focus settings.A test set consisting of images grabbed with different focus and illumination for each field of view, was used to test the method, and the proposed method showed less variation than the intraoperator variation using manual threshold.Further, the method showed good correlation to manual object counting (r = 0.80) on an other test set.

Optimizing Treatment Parameters for Hair Removal Using a Topical Carbon-Based Solution and 1064-nm Q-Switched Neodymium:YAG Laser Energy

To determine the most effective treatment parameters for laser-assisted hair removal using a Q-switched neodymium:yttrium-aluminum-garnet (Nd:YAG) laser. Prospective study to determine the effectiveness of Q-switched ND:YAG laser-assisted hair removal under varying pretreatment protocols. Hair growth was assessed after laser treatment, and the results were compared with those of wax epilation at 4, 12, and 24 weeks. A private ambulatory laser facility and academic referral center. Laser-assisted hair removal was performed under 4 different pretreatment conditions. Eighteen areas of unwanted body and facial hair from 12 study subjects were divided into 4 quadrants. Wax epilation followed by application of a carbon-based solution and exposure to Q-switched Nd:YAG laser radiation was performed on 1 quadrant. A second quadrant was wax epilated and exposed to Q-switched Nd:YAG laser radiation without prior carbon solution application. A third quadrant was exposed to laser radiation alone, and a final quadrant was wax epilated to serve as the control. Follow-up evaluations at 1, 3, and 6 months consisted of photographic documentation, manual hair counts, and patient hair-density estimates. Percentage of hair regrowth as assessed by objective hair counts and patient subjective evaluations. Mean percentage of hair regrowth at 1 month was 39.9% for the wax-carbon-laser quadrant, 46.7% for the wax-laser quadrant, 66.1% for the laser-alone quadrant, and 77.9% for the wax control quadrant. The percentage of hair regrowth approximately doubled by 3 months but was significantly delayed in all laser-treated quadrants regardless of pretreatment protocol. Full hair regrowth in all anatomic locations was observed by month 6. Patient subjective evaluations of hair density closely approximated hair count data. No adverse effects or long-term complications were observed. A single hair-removal treatment with the Q-switched Nd:YAG laser is safe and effective in delaying hair growth for up to 3 months. Although the combination of pretreatment wax epilation and topical carbon solution application was effective, laser irradiation alone, with or without wax epilation, also provided a significant delay in hair growth.