Blinder-Oaxaca Decomposition Analysis Research Articles

Examining the decline in modern contraception usage among married women in Bangladesh: Applying Blinder-Oaxaca decomposition analysis.

Controlling population expansion and reducing unintended pregnancies through the use of modern contraceptives is a cost-effective strategy. In recent years, the rate of modern contraceptive use in Bangladesh has been declining. So, this study aimed to investigate the associated factors of the deterioration in modern contraceptive usage. This study used data from two successive Bangladesh Demographic and Health Surveys (2014 and 2017-18) and applied the Blinder-Oaxaca decomposition analysis to understand the drivers. A popular binary logistic regression model is fitted to determine the factors that influence the use of modern contraceptive methods over the years. This study revealed that highly educated women were more likely to use modern contraception methods, and their use increased by 3 percent over the years. Factors such as women's working status, husband's education, number of living children, and fertility preference were found significantly associated with decreased usage of modern contraception methods over years. The result of the Blinder-Oaxaca (BO) decomposition analysis found a significant decrease between 2014 and 2018. Respondent's age, working status, husband's age, opinion on decision making, region, and media exposure were the most significant contributors to explaining the shift between 2014 and 2018. The two factors that contributed most to narrowing the difference between the two surveys were women's decision on own health (26%), and employment status (35%). The factors that influence modern contraceptive prevalence are important to know for policy implication purposes in Bangladesh. The findings indicate the need for further improvement of factors for balancing the usage of modern contraception methods.

Does the Design of Welfare Programs Stipulate Nursing Home Utilization? A Comparative Analysis of Long-Term Care Systems in Japan and Germany

Abstract Japan and Germany are both facing a rapidly aging population and have similar social insurance-based long-term care systems. However, there are significant differences in utilization and costs. This paper presents a microeconomic decision model validated by regression analysis, Blinder-Oaxaca decomposition, and Data Envelopment Analysis to contrast the utilization patterns in the Japanese and German long-term care sectors. The design of the welfare programs for low-income families has been identified as one of the main reasons. In Germany, the welfare system leads to a demand curve for nursing home care that is comparable to that of an inferior good which makes external long-term care in nursing homes the more attractive, the poorer the respective households are. In addition, the resulting inelastic demand of the population groups in need of social benefits seem to reduces competition among Germany’s long-term care providers, which is associated with a loss of efficiency in how they use production factors. In Japan, this negative outcome is avoided by a comfort segmentation in the nursing home market.

Temporal variation of chronic child malnutrition in the context of strengthening healthcare services in Burkina Faso: an Oaxaca-Blinder multivariate decomposition analysis.

Malnutrition seriously affects children's health, survival, and future productivity. According to the literature, increasing the supply of health services should help reduce the spread of malnutrition. This article analyses the sources of changes in the decline of chronic malnutrition during the 2000s, where there was an increase in the supply of health services in Burkina Faso. We used data from demographic and health surveys conducted in 2003 and 2010 in Burkina Faso. Malnutrition was defined according to the recommendations of the World Health Organization, while using standards of growth which are current and uniform for the two periods of study considered. We analyzed the source of temporal variation of chronic malnutrition through the Oaxaca-Blinder multivariate decomposition of the proportion of children suffering from chronic malnutrition. The analyses showed that the relative extent of chronic malnutrition in children decreased significantly, from 43.4% (CI 95%: 42.3-44.4) in 2003 to 34.7% (CI 95%: 33.6-35.9) in 2010. A quarter of this variation is due to a change in characteristics (composition effect), and the remaining 74.74% is due to a difference in coefficients (performance or behavior effect). Improved access to health services played a crucial role in reducing the scale of chronic malnutrition between 2003 and 2010. Other factors, such as educating mothers and urbanization, also contributed significantly. This study shows that improving access to health services is crucial for reducing chronic malnutrition. So, programs tackling child malnutrition must first and foremost ensure that children have access to health services.

Unpacking the Gap: Socioeconomic Background and the Stratification of College Applications in the United States

AbstractWhile a substantial body of work has shown that higher-SES students tend to apply to more selective colleges than their lower-SES counterparts, we know relatively less about why students differ in their application behavior. In this study, we draw upon a sociological approach to educational stratification to unpack the SES-based gap in college application selectivity. Using data from the High School Longitudinal Study of 2009, we examine the contribution of theoretical factors to the class-based gap in the selectivity of college applications. Namely, from the rational action model we estimate the contribution of performance differentials and choice differentials, while from the status attainment model we look at the level and type of educational expectations as well as the number of applications submitted. Through a series of Heckman selection models, as well as a Blinder-Oaxaca decomposition analysis, we can explain 85% of the gap in college application selectivity between students in the top and bottom SES quintiles. In turn, we estimate that 60% of this explained portion is due to rational action mechanisms such as grades and test scores while 35% is due to status attainment mechanisms. Finally, we reveal that SES moderates the relationship between type of expectations and application selectivity. We find that the payoff to higher expectations (in terms of selective applications) disproportionately accrues to higher-SES students.

Education, Income, Wealth, and Discrimination in Black-White Allostatic Load Disparities

IntroductionAllostatic load (AL) is a significant marker of aging, associated with disease and mortality. Research has elucidated the impact of education and income on AL. However, the roles of wealth and discrimination in contributing to AL and shaping AL disparities remain underexplored. This study aimed to investigate the association between wealth and AL, while also examining the independent contributions of education, income, wealth, and everyday discrimination in shaping AL disparities. MethodsUsing 2016 data from the nationally representative Health and Retirement Study (N=3,866), this study employed multilinear regression analysis to quantify the association between education and income, wealth (calculated as assets minus debts), and everyday discrimination with AL. Oaxaca-Blinder decomposition analysis was conducted to determine the proportion of AL disparities between Black and White participants attributed to education and income, wealth, and everyday discrimination. Analyses were performed in 2023. ResultsHaving a college degree or more (b = -0.32; 95% CI: -0.46, -0.17), higher income (b = -0.06; 95% CI: -0.11, -0.01), and greater wealth (b = -0.11; 95% CI: -0.16, -0.07) were linked to reduced AL. Conversely, increased experiences of everyday discrimination were associated with heightened AL (b = 0.07; 95% CI: 0.01, 0.16). Collectively, differences in possessing a college degree or more, wealth, and exposure to discrimination accounted for about 18% of the observed Black-White AL disparities. ConclusionsEducation, income, wealth, and experiences of discrimination may independently contribute to AL and partially explain Black-White disparities in AL. There is a need to elucidate the underlying mechanisms governing these relationships, particularly wealth, and extend the research to additional social determinants of racial health disparities.

Effect of Parent’s International Migration on the Educational Performances of Left-Behind Children in Morocco

This paper focuses on examining the effects of parent’s international migration on the educational outcomes of left-behind children. This, however, is with special emphasis on how family environment and school characteristics affects the educational achievements of left-behind children. A sample was selected from the survey conducted in Fkih Ben Salah, a small town in Morocco, within the Béni Mellal-Khénifra region. This survey, administered in 2020, included 407 children from 16 primary schools. The results of the propensity score matching method showed that the international migration of parents had a significant effect on the school performance of their left-behind children. Furthermore, the Oaxaca-Blinder decomposition analysis showed that 36.34% of the differences in the children’s school performance during the first semester of the year 2020 can be explained by factors such as student–teacher ratio, class size, and socio-economic index of class, accounting for 12.82%, 38.47%, and 31.35%, respectively. The empirical findings also revealed that left-behind children are at risk of social exclusion, especially in public schools. Targeted interventions should be adopted to improve the educational outcomes of left-behind children. In addition, these interventions should assist immigrant parents in facilitating their children’s first journey and enhancing the student-teacher ratio.

Does instructional leadership drive educational improvement in South Africa? Evidence from Oaxaca-Blinder decomposition analysis

ABSTRACT Quality school leadership and management are important determinants of teaching and learning quality. According to South Africa’s National Development Plan (NDP), principals should provide administrative and curriculum leadership to schools. This study investigated the improvement between 2015 and 2019 Grade 9 mathematics scores in South Africa, and explored the extent to which the difference could be related to instructional leadership. Using the Oaxaca-Blinder (OB) decomposition technique, the performance gap is decomposed into a part that is associated with changes in the number of educational inputs, such as student, teacher, and school/principal characteristics, and a part that is associated with changes in the efficiency of the educational inputs. The findings suggest that instructional leadership variables are positively associated with increased mathematics scores but the return to student achievement was lower in 2019 than 2015. The findings also revealed that instructional leadership led to less improvements among under-resourced schools in 2019.

Rural-urban disparities in nutritional status among ever-married women in Bangladesh: A Blinder-Oaxaca decomposition approach

This study aims to investigate socioeconomic disparities in nutritional status among ever-married women in Bangladesh and to break down urban-rural differences in the underlying causes of undernutrition. We utilized data from the Bangladesh Demographic and Health Survey 2017–18, a sample size of 18328 ever-married women, including 5170 from urban residences, and 13159 from rural residences. To explore socioeconomic inequality, we employed a concentration indexing measure, while a multiple binary logistic regression model was carried out to identify the determinants associated with the outcome variable. A Blinder-Oaxaca decomposition analysis was performed to decompose the urban-rural gap in women’s nutritional status using associated factors. The prevalence of undernutrition among ever-married women in Bangladesh was 12 percent. Notably, this percentage varied by region, with urban residents accounting for 8.6% and rural residents accounting for 13.3%. Our findings confirmed that undernutrition was more prevalent among women with lower wealth indexes in Bangladesh, as indicated by the concentration index (CIX = −0.26). The multivariable analysis investigating the determinants of undernutrition status among ever-married women, with a focus on residence revealed significant associations with respondent age, education, marital status, mass media access, wealth status, and division. According to the Blinder-Oaxaca decomposition and its extension, the prevalence was significantly higher in rural residences of Bangladesh than in urban residences, and the endowment effect explained 86 percent of the total urban-rural difference in undernutrition prevalence. The results of this study indicate that the factors that influence women’s nutritional status in rural areas play a significant role in the gap, and the majority of the gap is caused by education and economic position. In order to effectively promote maternal health policies in Bangladesh, intervention techniques should be created that are aimed at the population, that is, the poorest and least educated.

Ethnic disparities in out–of–pocket expense on medicines in Peru: Evidence from a nationwide survey

BackgroundDespite improvements in health insurance coverage, out-of-pocket (OOP) health spending remains a public health issue in Peru, and OOP payment has implications for disease treatment in ethnic minorities. We aimed to analyze the ethnic disparities in the OOP payment and estimate the gaps related to observable risk factors in the OOP payment on medicines by ethnic conditions during 2014–2016 in Peru. Study designcross-sectional study. MethodsWe conducted a secondary data analysis using the National Health User Satisfaction Survey. The outcome was the participants' OOP payment in self-reported medications. Ethnic minorities were considered participants who habitually spoke a language other than Spanish at home. Crude and adjusted linear regression models were performed, and the Oaxaca-Blinder decomposition method was used to assess the OPP payment differential by ethnic minority condition, explained by their individual and sociodemographic characteristics. ResultsWe analyzed 11,346 surveyed, the mean age was 40.78 years, and 57.67 % were women. There was lower OOP payment in medications among ethnic minorities in the adjusted analysis (Beta coefficient [β]: −0.11; 95 % confidence interval [95%CI]: −0.21 to −0.01; p = 0.043). In the Oaxaca-Blinder decomposition analysis, a gap of 0.19 USD in the OOP payment in medicines among ethnic minorities was found (p < 0.001), and the explained component by the variables measured in this research only represents 40.5 % of the gap (p = 0.001). ConclusionThere was less OOP expenditure on medicines in ethnic minorities. However, the measured variables explain only 40.5 % of these gaps. Therefore, we recommend future research that measures other variables that explain aspects of OOP spending on medicines not identified in this research. Likewise, our findings can be used to establish policies with an intercultural approach that adapt health documents to native languages or are disseminated by trained people from their communities.

Determinants of Hispanic and non-Hispanic Workers' Intent to Work Past Age 65: An Analysis From the Life Course Perspective.

Background: The average retirement age in the United States (U.S.) has increased over the past few decades. However, the rate of increase for Hispanics is lower than that for non-Hispanics. For Hispanics, the decision to retire later may be more influenced by their migration history and context rather than health or finances. Objective: This study aims to explore the differences in the determinants of intentions to delay retirement (i.e., work beyond the age of 65) between Hispanics and non-Hispanic Whites in the U.S. Methods: A pooled sample was generated from all waves of the Health and Retirement Study (1992-2014), including a unique record for each non-institutionalized individual aged 55-61 who was employed. All eligible Hispanics (n = 3,663) were included, while a random sample of non-Hispanic Whites (n = 3,663) was selected. Logistic mixed models were conducted for each group, and a Two-fold Oaxaca-Blinder decomposition analysis was used to explore differences between the groups. Results: The results indicate that non-Hispanic Whites are more likely to plan to postpone retirement. Furthermore, significant differences were found between Hispanics and non-Hispanic Whites regarding their intentions to delay retirement, specifically related to socioeconomic indicators such as individual earnings, amount of debt, level of education, and parents' level of education. The differences between the groups were primarily influenced by the amount of debt, having a defined benefit plan, and parents' level of education, reflecting the cumulative disadvantage experienced by Hispanics over their life course. Conclusion: Most existing research on the topic has focused on middle-class Whites, while few studies have examined race or ethnicity as the primary focus or explored the extent to which commonly identified predictors of delayed retirement apply to different ethno-racial groups. This is significant because Hispanics and other disadvantaged groups tend to experience financial insecurity during retirement, which directly impacts their health and well-being.

The impact of globalisation and education in promoting policies for renewables and energy efficiency

Policies targeting energy efficiency and renewable energy are sometimes viewed as more politically feasible than carbon pricing in pursuit of emission reduction goals. This paper assesses underlying drivers of energy policy development. These factors include economic, social, environmental, and institutional variables. The between estimator for panel data is an appropriate method for our focus on some exogenous variables that vary more across countries than over time. We find that larger oil reserves per capita have a negative relationship with renewable energy policy development. Education and political globalisation have strong positive relationships with both energy-efficiency and renewable-energy policy development. These results suggest that greater participation in global political groups can be an indirect approach toward energy policy development, in cases where direct and immediate policies are hard to implement. OECD countries have higher policy scores by 33 and 25 points in energy efficiency and renewable energy respectively. Blinder-Oaxaca decomposition analysis shows that these higher scores are primarily due to social and political institution predictors rather than economics and physical endowments.

Explaining gender inequalities in overweight people: a Blinder-Oaxaca decomposition analysis in northern Sweden

BackgroundBeing overweight and obesity are considered serious public health concerns worldwide. At the population level, factors contributing to overweight as well as the differences in overweight between men and women in terms of prevalence or associated factors are relatively well-known. What is less known is what explains the inequalities in overweight between men and women. In this study, we examined the contribution of material, behavioural, and psychosocial factors in explaining the gender differences in overweight among adults in northern Sweden.MethodsThis study was based on the 2018 Swedish Health on Equal Terms survey, which was carried out in Sweden’s four northernmost regions. The analytical sample consisted of 20,855 participants (47% men) aged 20–84 years. Overweight (including obesity) was the outcome, and the selected explanatory variables were grouped according to three theoretical perspectives: material, behavioural and psychosocial. Descriptive statistics and Blinder-Oaxaca decomposition were applied for analysing the data.ResultsOur study showed that the prevalence of overweight was 64% and 52% among men and women, respectively. It, therefore, revealed a gender gap in overweight people of 11.7% points with explanatory factors accounting for 39% of that gap. This gender gap in overweight people was mostly explained by behavioural variables (19.3%), followed by the materialistic variables and age accounting for 16.2% and 3.1%, respectively. Specifically, having low education, being in the lowest income quintile, alcohol drinking and snus usage contributed to explain 8.4%, 8.9%, 2.8% and 6.3% of the gender difference, respectively.ConclusionsWe found a considerable gender inequality in overweight between men and women. The findings highlight that future overweight prevention initiatives would benefit from targeting the uncovered contributing factors to reduce gender inequalities in overweight people.

Oral Health Inequities among CALD and Non-CALD Older Australians: A Decomposition Analysis.

Among Australia's older population, the burden of oral disease is disproportionality borne by culturally and linguistically diverse (CALD) communities. This study aims to examine changes in untreated decay surfaces (DS) between 2004-2006 and 2017-2018 among older CALD and non-CALD Australians. Data were sourced Australian national oral health surveys conducted in 2004-2006 and 2017-2018. An Oaxaca-Blinder decomposition analysis was used to assess the contribution of socio-demographics and dental behaviours. A total of 246 CALD and 2853 non-CALD dentate participants aged 60+ years took part in 2004-2006, and 363 and 4278 in 2017-2018, respectively. There were increases in mean DS for both CALD (0.74 to 1.42) and non-CALD (0.72 to 1.50) groups between 2004-2006 and 2017-2018. The decomposition model showed that, for CALD participants in 2004-2006 with untreated DS, 40% of the contribution was from not having dental insurance; nearly three-quarters of the contribution was from last dental visit being over one year ago (72.9%) in 2017-2018. Among non-CALD participants in 2017-2018 with untreated DS, 42.5% of the contribution was from the last dental visit being over one year ago. Our findings suggest that social determinants, including increased access to dental insurance, could mitigate the oral health inequities observed.

Gender Differences in School Effects on Adolescent Life Satisfaction: Exploring Cross-National Variation

BackgroundLevels and drivers of adolescent life satisfaction (LS) vary across nations. School is known to be an important aspect of life affecting adolescent LS, but there are gender differences in how schools may influence LS. However, little is known about how these gender differences vary across countries.ObjectiveA series of statistical analyses (bivariate associations, multilevel regression, and Blinder-Oaxaca decomposition analyses) using PISA 2015 data on 15-year-old students in 33 countries.MethodA series of statistical analyses (bivariate associations, multilevel regression, and Blinder-Oaxaca decomposition analyses) using PISA 2015 data on 15-year-old students in 33 countries.ResultsGirls report lower overall LS than boys on average in all the countries studied. Various cross-national patterns emerge regarding the role of schools. Although school is a life domain in which experiences related to overall LS tend to be more negative among boys than among girls (mainly via bullying and relationships with teachers), the opposite is observed for a few school-related factors (notably school anxiety). Furthermore, in some countries, the gender gap in overall LS varies across schools, which suggests that schools would play an important role in shaping students’ LS in different ways for girls and boys. Despite some cross-national patterns, substantial cross-country variation is also observed.ConclusionThe study of adolescent LS in schools may benefit from more nuanced approaches that account for cross-cultural differences in how schools may promote the subjective well-being of girls and boys in different ways.

Inequalities by sex on remaining teeth in adults: A decomposition analysis.

To identify which social determinants of health explain the gap in the remaining teeth between men and women. A secondary analysis of data from the Chilean National Health Survey (CNHS) 2016-2017 was performed on the number of remaining teeth in adults. The explanatory variables were organized into structural and intermediate social determinants of health according to the WHO framework. The contribution of both groups and the contribution of each individual explanatory variable to the remaining teeth gap was estimated using the Blinder-Oaxaca decomposition analysis. The predicted average number of remaining teeth for men was 23.4 and 21.0 for women, thus a mean difference of 2.4 teeth. 49.8% of the inequality between men and women was due to the different distribution (endowments) of the predictors in the model. Among them, structural determinants of health, namely education level (15.8%) and employment status (17.8%), contributed the most. Intermediate determinants had no relevant contribution to explain the gap. Results revealed that the difference in the mean number of remaining teeth between men and women was mainly explained by two structural determinants: education level and employment status. The lack of explanatory power of intermediate determinants and the large explanatory power of structural determinants means that tackling oral health inequity in Chile requires strong political commitment. The role of intersectoral and intersectional public policies to address gender inequalities in oral health in Chile is discussed.

Explaining the gender gap in reproductive transition of Ethiopian youths: A decomposition analysis

The achievement of gender equality and ending all forms of disparity in the spheres of sexual and reproductive health are critical components of sustainable development goals. We endeavor to investigate the characteristics and/or structural sources of the gender gap in the reproductive transition among Ethiopian youths. The analysis was carried out using parts of data drawn from the 2011 and 2016 Ethiopian Demographic and Health Survey. The decomposition of the gender gap in the reproductive transition of youths into components was made using the Blinder-Oaxaca decomposition analysis for non-linear models. The results demonstrate that the delay in the age at first marriage among the youth was accompanied by an increase in the prevalence of premarital sex. Furthermore, the findings show that the gender gap in reproductive transition is triggered by both compositional and structural effects of covariates such as education, modern contraceptive use, and media exposure. Thus, in addition to reducing inequalities in education, media exposure, and deprivation between male and female youths, working on the structural components is recommended to close the gender gap in the reproductive transition of youths.

Contributing factors for urban-rural inequalities in unmet need for family planning among reproductive-aged women in Ethiopia: a Blinder-Oaxaca decomposition analysis

BackgroundUnmet need for family planning (FP) is a global public health concern, particularly in low- and middle-income countries. In Ethiopia, although several studies have assessed unmet needs for FP, there have only been few empirical investigations into regional inequalities and their contributory factors. This study assessed urban-rural inequalities in unmet FP needs among reproductive-aged women in Ethiopia and particularly examined the contribution of material, cultural-behavioral, and psychosocial factors therein.MethodsA cross sectional study was conducted among 8811 reproductive-aged women derived from the nationally representative 2019 Ethiopian Performance Monitoring for Action (PMA) data. The outcome variable was unmet need for FP. The exposure variable was place of residence (urban or rural). Contributing factors were categorized into material, psychosocial and cultural-behavioral factors. Blinder-Oaxaca decomposition analysis was used to assess urban-rural inequalities in unmet need for FP as well as to disentangle the contributory factors in percentage points.ResultIn our study, 13.8% of reproductive-aged women in Ethiopia reported unmet FP needs. Urban-rural inequalities therein accounted for 6.8% points. Disparities in FP needs between urban and rural areas were mostly explained by psychosocial factors (81.0%) followed by material (21.0%), and cultural-behavioral (3.2%) factors. While women who were living with a partner (39.1%, p < 0.01) and multiparas (51%, p < 0.01) contributed to increasing inequalities, attending family planning counseling services with a healthcare provider (-1.7%, p = 0.03) reduced the gap in unmet need for FP between urban and rural areas. Women from the poorest and poor category contributed 14.1% (p = 0.02) and 11.1% (p = 0.04), respectively. Being from a Muslim religion also contributed to the disparity by 7.3% (p < 0.01).ConclusionThis study showed that among reproductive-aged women in Ethiopia, inequalities in unmet FP needs show distinct urban-rural patterning. Most inequalities could be attributed to psychosocial factors, mainly parity and marital status, followed by material and cultural-behavioral factors. Policymakers should target these modifiable psychosocial factors to reduce urban-rural inequalities in unmet need for FP in Ethiopia.

Understanding factors associated with rural-urban disparities of stunting among under-five children in Rwanda: A decomposition analysis approach.

Childhood stunting in its moderate and severe forms is a major global problem and an important indicator of child health. Rwanda has made progress in reducing the prevalence of stunting. However, the burden of stunting and its geographical disparities have precipitated the need to investigate its spatial clusters and attributable factors. Here, we assessed the determinants of under-5 stunting and mapped its prevalence to identify areas where interventions can be directed. Using three combined rounds of the nationally representative Rwanda Demographic and Health Surveys of 2010, 2015and 2020, we employed the Blinder-Oaxaca decomposition analysis and the hotspot and cluster analyses to quantify the contributions of key determinants of stunting. Overall, there was a 7.9% and 10.3% points reduction in moderate stunting among urban and rural areas, respectively, and a 2.8% and 8.3% points reduction in severe stunting in urban and rural areas, respectively. Child age, wealth index, maternal educationand the number of antenatal care visits were key determinants for the reduction of moderate and severe stunting. Over time, persistent statistically significant hotspots for moderate and severe stunting were observed in Northern and Western parts of the country. There is a need for an adaptive scaling approach when implementing national nutritional interventions by targeting high-burden regions. Stunting hotspots in Western and Northern provinces underscore the need for coordinated subnational initiatives and strategies such as empowering the rural poor, enhancing antenatal health care, and improving maternal health and education levels to sustain the gains made in reducing childhood stunting.

Changes in gender differences in household poverty in Kenya

Gender poverty differences in households are likely to affect female-headed households more than male-headed households. This paper examined the evolution of the gender poverty rate gap and identified the factors that underlie differences in poverty rates between female-headed households and male-headed households using the most recent representative household surveys conducted by the Kenya National Bureau of Statistics in 2005/06 and 2015/16. An extended Blinder-Oaxaca decomposition analysis with nonlinear regression was performed. The findings indicate that poverty rates for female-headed households and male-headed households declined from 38.56 to 32.73% in 2005/06 to 30.23 and 26.04% in 2015/16, respectively. Although female-headed households (1.12) have a higher chance of falling into poverty than male-headed households (0.95), the decline in the poverty rate was higher for female-headed households (8.33%) than for male-headed households (6.69%). Therefore, the results do not support the feminization of poverty hypothesis in Kenya. Factors that have bridged the gender poverty gap include cash transfers that explain 11.02% of the gaps, literacy (53.97%), university education (10.39%), secondary education (40.84%), employment in public and private sectors (26.66%) and business employment (10.58%). Recommended policies include the implementation of the gender policy and affirmative action, enhancing literacy levels, and secondary and university enrolment.

Explaining income inequities in tooth loss among Brazilian adults.

To determine the extent to which individual and contextual variables explain income inequities in tooth loss in Brazilian adults. A nationally representative sample of 65,784 Brazilian adults aged 18-59 who participated in the Brazilian National Health Survey 2019 was analyzed. Self-reported tooth loss was the outcome. Per capita income was the main exposure, and minimum wage was the cutoff point. Individual covariates included sex, race, and schooling, dental visits, smoking status, use of dental floss, and self-reported chronic conditions. Contextual covariates included access to treated water and geographic region of residence. Blinder-Oaxaca decomposition analysis was used to estimate the share of each factor in income-related tooth loss inequities by age groups. Age-standardized tooth loss showed large income inequities. The average difference in tooth loss related to income inequities in the 18-34-year-old group was 0.50 (95% CI 0.39; 0.60), increasing to 4.51 (95% CI 4.09; 4.93) in the 45-59 years. Individual and contextual covariates explained almost 90% of income inequities in the 45-59 year group. Use of dental floss, schooling, and geographic region of residence (a proxy for human development level) had a higher proportion of contribution to the inequities examined. Individual and contextual covariates (proxy for human development level and water fluoridation coverage) explained a large share of income-related tooth loss inequities. Tailored strategies to act at both levels can help reduce tooth loss inequities among Brazilian adults.