Nutritional Composition Of Breast Milk Research Articles

Review on Key Features of Infant Feeding: Human Milk and Infant Formula

Human breast milk (HBM) is the finest source of nutrition for almost all infants. Breast milk as a bodily fluid has many benefits beyond somatic cell growth, including regulation of postnatal intestinal function, immune ontogeny, and brain development. However, breastfeeding is strongly recommended, breastfeeding may not always be possible, suitable or solely adequate1. Hence, Infant formula is often an alternative source of infant nutrition when breastfeeding is unacceptable or impossible. The composition of infant formula should be as close as possible to the composition of human breast milk, both in terms of content and chemical specification2. Infant formulas try to mimic the nutritional composition of breast milk as closely as possible. A number of substitutes to milk-based formula also exist. In this article, we review nutritional information for breast milk and infant formulas to help you better understand the importance of breastfeeding and the use of infant formulas up to 24 months of age when alternative feeding is required. In general, breast milk is the ideal food to ensure that an infant's nutritional needs are met.
 Keywords: breast milk; infant formula; type of infant formula; benefits

Production of Infant Formula Using Mixture of Walnut and Almond Oil

Milk is an essential food for children and it is clear that the best source of nutrition for babies is breast milk. The World Health Organization (WHO) recommends that infants be exclusively breastfed for the first six months of life. However, some babies may need complementary milk during the early months of life or may be weaned for some reason. Although it is not possible to produce the same product as breast milk, attempts have been made to imitate the nutritional characteristics of breast milk for the normal growth and development of infants. Infant Formula is considered as an effective alternative to breast milk and has been prepared to mimic the nutritional composition of breast milk. Formulas need to meet the factors of normal physical growth quality and adequate biological quality. The production process is also fully regulated and monitored to meet national and international quality standards. Today, cow's milk is the most widely used alternative to human milk and the basis of many Infant Formulas. In this study, the effect of adding walnut and almond oil to infant formula was investigated. The number of treatments was determined by using the Mixture Design method and the necessary tests were performed for infant formula and physicochemical and qualitative tests including moisture, dry matter, measurement of color parameters, density, particle size, insoluble index, pH, acidity, total sugar, fat, protein, ash, vitamin C, minerals, aflatoxin M1, wettability acceptable and scorched particles were done. The results showed that adding this formula could meet 90% of our expectations for the production of infant formula and not have an adverse effect on the physicochemical properties of the formula.

What Are the Maternal Factors that Potentially Intervenes in the Nutritional Composition of Human Milk?

Background: To evaluate the potential factors associated with the nutritional composition of human milk of puerperal women. Methods: cross-sectional study, conducted between March 2016 and August 2017, with 107 women, selected in a Tertiary Health Care Tertiary Health Facility of the Unified Health System (SUS) in the Municipality of Rio de Janeiro. Data were collected two months after delivery. The dependent variable of the study was the nutritional composition of human milk. We divided the independent variables into hierarchical levels: distal (age, schooling, parity and pregestational nutritional status), intermediate (number of prenatal visits and gestational weight gain) and proximal (alcohol consumption, smoking, diabetes mellitus and hypertension). For data analysis, we applied the multiple linear regression, centered on the hierarchical model. Only the variables associated with the nutritional composition of breast milk remained in the final model at a 5% level of significance. Results: The nutritional composition of human milk yielded by women with pregestational overweight, smokers and hypertensive had higher amounts of lipids and energy. Conversely, women with gestational weight gain below the recommended had lower amounts of these components. Conclusion: The evaluation of factors associated with the nutritional composition of human milk is extremely important to assist post-partum care practices. In this study, we observed that lipid and energy contents were associated to pregestational nutritional status, gestational weight gain, smoking and hypertension.

Current Perspective of Sialylated Milk Oligosaccharides in Mammalian Milk: Implications for Brain and Gut Health of Newborns.

Human milk oligosaccharides (HMOs) are the third most abundant solid component after lactose and lipids of breast milk. All mammal milk contains soluble oligosaccharides, including neutral milk oligosaccharides (NMOs) without sialic acid (Sia) moieties and acidic oligosaccharides or sialylated milk oligosaccharides (SMOs) with Sia residues at the end of sugar chains. The structural, biological diversity, and concentration of milk oligosaccharides in mammalian milk are significantly different among species. HMOs have multiple health benefits for newborns, including development of immune system, modification of the intestinal microbiota, anti-adhesive effect against pathogens, and brain development. Most infant formulas lack oligosaccharides which resemble HMOs. Formula-fed infants perform poorly across physical and psychological wellbeing measures and suffer health disadvantages compared to breast-fed infants due to the differences in the nutritional composition of breast milk and infant formula. Of these milk oligosaccharides, SMOs are coming to the forefront of research due to the beneficial nature of Sia. This review aims to critically discuss the current state of knowledge of the biology and role of SMOs in human milk, infant formula milks, and milk from several other species on gut and brain health of human and animal offspring.

Knowledge, attitude and practice of Saudi women in Najran area towards breastfeeding during Ramadan.

Breastfeeding is the gold standard for infant feeding practice. Many factors influence breastfeeding, one of them is breastfeeding during Ramadan. The objective of our study was to assess the knowledge, practice and attitude of breastfeeding among women in Najran area, Saudi Arabia, during month of Ramadan. A descriptive cross-sectional study using a self-administrated questionnaire was conducted in June and July 2015. A total of 169 breastfeeding women visiting the Gynaecology Clinic in Najran University hospital were randomly recruited. Data were analysed by using statistical package for the social sciences version 20.0. Of the study population, 89.9% showed that they used to practice breastfeeding while fasting during the day in Ramadan (p < 0.000). The study revealed that 85.8% of the participants thought that fasting does not alter the nutritional composition of breast milk (p < 0.001). Around 80.5% stated that fasting has no adverse effect on the volume of breast milk and the growth of the infants during Ramadan. Women's knowledge about fasting and infant growth was significantly associated with their age and education (p value =0.011 and 0.031, respectively). To conclude, majority of the study population had positive knowledge, attitude and practice towards breastfeeding in Ramadan. Breastfeeding promotion programs are needed to provide support and advice to women regarding breastfeeding during Ramadan and improve their breastfeeding attitudes and knowledge which will lead to short- and long-term benefits for infants, mothers, environment, economy and the entire society.

Do maternal morbidities change the nutritional composition of human milk? A systematic review.

This paper aims to identify the effects of maternal morbidities on the nutritional composition of human milk. This systematic review of the literature employed a PRISMA's protocol for searching, selecting, and extracting data. The flowchart proposed for bibliographic search resulted in 1,582 papers, of which 14 were selected for this work. The papers selected for this review were published between 1987 and 2016. Nine studies found significant differences in the nutritional composition of the milk of mothers with diabetes mellitus, arterial hypertension, or overweight compared to the control group. Most studies have shown that the presence of chronic diseases leads to changes in the nutritional composition of human milk. The main results showed a lower concentration of lactose and fat in the milk of women with diabetes mellitus. Concerning hypertension, higher levels of total protein were found in colostrum and mature milk. A higher fat and energy content was observed in overweight mothers. It is imperative that these women have continuous nutritional monitoring to minimize the impact of these morbidities on the nutritional composition of breast milk.

Positive relationship between consumption of specific fish type and n-3 PUFA in milk of Hong Kong lactating mothers.

Residents of Hong Kong have undergone a dietary transition from a traditional Chinese diet that is high in seafood to a more Western diet. This may have affected the nutritional composition of breast milk of Hong Kong mothers. The present study aims to investigate the relationship between the dietary pattern and the fatty acid profile of the breast milk of lactating women in Hong Kong. Seventy-three volunteering healthy Hong Kong lactating mothers participated in the study. Their dietary intakes were assessed by using a 3-d dietary record and FFQ. The mean n-3 fatty acid levels were approximately 0·4 % (EPA) and 0·9 % (DHA) of total fatty acids in the breast milk of lactating mothers who had exclusively breastfed their infants aged 2-6 months. Maternal dietary intakes of n-3 fatty acids were positively associated with their levels in the breast milk. The levels of maternal intakes of freshwater and saltwater fish, especially the consumption of salmon, croaker and mandarin, were significantly correlated with the content of DHA in breast milk. The present study is among the very few in the literature to determine the fatty acid profile of breast milk in Hong Kong populations and verify certain dietary factors that influence this profile. High levels of n-3 PUFA, especially DHA, were observed in the breast milk of Hong Kong lactating women. The findings may serve as a dietary reference for lactating mothers to optimise the fatty acid profile of their breast milk.

Effect of Chronic Alcohol Consumption on Nutritional Composition of Breast Milk: An Experimental Study

The aim of the present study was to analyze the nutritional effects of alcohol consumption in the form of distilled and fermented beverages, together with a diet made up of habitual foods of northeastern Brazil, on the composition of breast milk. Sixty Wistar rats were divided into five experimental groups, and all received a balanced diet of beans, rice, chicken, cassava flour and soybean oil (18% protein content), associated to different liquids in accordance with the following experimental groups: Control Group (CG) – distilled water; Alcohol Group (AG) – 5% hydroalcoholic solution; Peer-Fed Alcohol Group (PFAG) – maltodextrin solution replacing calories from alcohol; Beer Group (BG) – beer (5% ethanol v/v); Peer-Fed Beer Group (PFBG) - maltodextrin solution replacing calories from beer. On the 12th day of lactation, breast milk was withdrawn for the analysis of protein, carbohydrates, total lipids, fraction of triglyceride, sodium and potassium. The Mann-Whitney test was used for the statistical analysis, with the level of significance set at 5% (p < 0.05). There was an increase in potassium content in the breast milk in the AG and an increase in lactose content in the breast milk in the BG. It may be concluded that the use of alcoholic beverages, even those with low ethanol content, during lactation can cause serious alterations in the metabolism of mothers, altering the composition of breast milk and possibly compromising the normal development of newborns

Use of probiotic, prebiotic and symbiotic in infant formulas

Introduction: Research and innovation in the field of infant milk formulas aim to approximate the nutritional composition of breast milk, and mimic its benefits at the functional level. Technological advances, together with the development of knowledge about the components of breast milk, have made it possible to identify a large number of bioactive compounds, which has led to their incorporation into infant formulas. Methods: Bibliographic review of scientific publications, in the databases: SciELO, Scopus and ScienceDirect. The publications addressed the topics of probiotics, symbiotic and their addition in infant milk formulas. Results: A total of 32 scientific articles were found that met the inclusion criteria. The definitions of prebiotic, probiotic and symbiotic are presented. The physiological effects on health and its recommendations are detailed. Conclusions: Evidence about clinical efficacy through the addition of prebiotics is not enough to recommend routine use in infant formulas. In relation to the addition of probiotics, further research is needed to be able to establish with specificity the types of strains, species and doses of consumption that are beneficial for health.

Nutritional composition of breast milk in Chinese women: a systematic review.

As breast milk is considered nature's best food for infant growth and development, understanding its nutritional composition is crucial for optimising the components of infant formula milk. In this study, we aimed to summarise the available evidence on the nutritional composition of breast milk from Chinese women, in particular, the macronutrients, fatty acids and minerals. We searched PubMed, Embase, and Chinese databases for articles about human breast milk from Chinese women published in English or Chinese between 1999 and 2015. We classified the data in 35 articles from the literature search into three lactation stages: colostral, transitional and mature milk. The content of each component varied greatly during the three lactation stages. Protein content decreased from colostral milk to mature milk (mean±SD, 1.64±0.32 g/dL vs 1.22±0.12 g/dL). In contrast, lipid content increased from colostral milk (2.36±1.17 g/dL) to mature milk (3.39±1.24 g/dL). Colostrum contained more linoleic acid (LA) than transitional and mature milk, while colostrum contained less α-linolenic acid (ALA) than transitional and mature milk. As lactation progressed, the ratios of docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and arachidonic acid (AA) to total fatty acids decreased while the potassium (K), zinc (Zn), and copper (Cu) concentrations decreased significantly, but their standard deviations were large. Magnesium (Mg) and manganese (Mn) concentrations showed significant differences across the three lactation stages. The stage of lactation was an important factor affecting the nutritional composition of breast milk from Chinese women.

Impact of maternal nutrition on breast-milk composition: a systematic review ,

Background: It is widely reported that maternal diet influences the nutritional composition of breast milk. The amount of variability in human milk attributable to diet remains mostly unknown. Most original studies that reported a dietary influence on breast-milk composition did not assess diet directly, did not quantify its association with milk composition, or both.Objective: To gather the quantitative evidence on this issue, we carried out a systematic PubMed and Medline search of articles published up to January 2015 and filtered the retrieved articles according to predefined criteria.Design: Only studies that provided quantitative information on both maternal diet and milk data, measured in individual healthy mothers of healthy term infants and based on an original observational or experimental design, were included. Exclusion criteria were a focus on supplements, transfer of toxic metals or other contaminants from diet to milk, or on marginally nourished women.Results: Thirty-six publications—including data on 1977 lactating women—that matched our criteria were identified. Seventeen studies investigated dietary effects on fatty acids in breast milk. The rest included studies that focused on a diverse spectrum of other nutritional properties of breast milk. The largest evidence, in terms of number of articles, for any link between maternal diet and a nutritive property of breast milk came from 3 studies that supported the link between fish consumption and high docosahexaenoic acid in breast milk and 2 studies that reported a positive correlation between dietary vitamin C and milk concentrations of this vitamin.Conclusions: The available information on this topic is scarce and diversified. Most of the evidence currently used in clinical practice to make recommendations is limited to studies that only reported indirect associations.

Review of Infant Feeding: Key Features of Breast Milk and Infant Formula.

Mothers’ own milk is the best source of nutrition for nearly all infants. Beyond somatic growth, breast milk as a biologic fluid has a variety of other benefits, including modulation of postnatal intestinal function, immune ontogeny, and brain development. Although breastfeeding is highly recommended, breastfeeding may not always be possible, suitable or solely adequate. Infant formula is an industrially produced substitute for infant consumption. Infant formula attempts to mimic the nutritional composition of breast milk as closely as possible, and is based on cow’s milk or soymilk. A number of alternatives to cow’s milk-based formula also exist. In this article, we review the nutritional information of breast milk and infant formulas for better understanding of the importance of breastfeeding and the uses of infant formula from birth to 12 months of age when a substitute form of nutrition is required.

Evaluation of dietary intake of lactating women in China and its potential impact on the health of mothers and infants

BackgroundOptimal nutrition for lactating mothers is importance for mother and infants’ health and well-being. We determined the nutrient intake and dietary changes during the first 3-month of lactation, and its potential effect on health and disease risk.MethodPersonal interviews were conducted to collect a 24h diet recall questionnaire from 199 healthy lactating women in the postpartum days 2, 7, 30, 90 and healthy 58 non-pregnant women served as the controls.ResultsWe found in lactating women (1) the mean daily energy and carbohydrate intake was lower than that of the Chinese Recommended Nutrient Intake (RNI, 2600 Kcal, 357.5 ~ 422.5g) by 11% ~ 17% and 33% ~ 49%, respectively; (2) the fat intake increased from 3% to 13%, which was 9 ~ 77% higher than the RNI (57 ~ 86.7g); (3) the protein intake exceeded the RNI of 85g by 32 ~ 53%; (4) the total calories consumed from carbohydrate (39%-44%), fat (34% ~ 42%) and protein (20%-23%) failed to meet Chinese RNI (5) the intake of vitamin C, B1, folate, zinc, dietary fiber, and calcium was 5% ~ 73% lower than the RNI while vitamin B2, B3, E, iron and selenium intake was 20% to 3 times higher than the RNI. Nutrient intake in the control group was lower for all nutrients than the recommended RNI.ConclusionLactating women on a self-selected diet did not meet the Chinese RNI for many important micronutrients, which may influence the nutritional composition of breast milk and thus impact the potential health of mothers and infants. RNI should consider the regional dietary habits and culture. A single national RNI is not applicable for all of China. Nutritional education into the community is needed.

The health benefits of breastfeeding on the risk of children developing allergic asthma

Background: The nutritional composition of breast milk, coupled with the health advantages of breastfeeding, are reasons that advisory bodies recommend this form of infant feeding as best practice. Evidence investigating the association between breastfeeding and the prevalence of allergies has, however, been highly inconclusive. Research has shown that breastfeeding has a protective effect on the early development of allergic asthma (Kull, 2002), whilst other evidence showed there to be no significant association (Fergusson, 1983). Paradoxically, other research has even shown breastfeeding increases the risk of children developing allergic asthma (Sears, 2000). This systematic review aimed to examine the evidence relating breastfeeding and allergic asthma among children up to 7 years of age. Methods: A systematic review process was utilised. Different terminologies for breastfeeding and allergic asthma were nested; breastfeeding and breast-feeding were combined with either asthma, allergic, atopic or extrinsic asthma and used in four databases; Google Scholar; PubMed; Web of Knowledge and CAB abstracts. The papers identified were compared against pre-defined inclusion and exclusion criteria. The paper must have: an abstract available; been written in English; used objective and valid diagnostic methodology for defining asthma and atopy in children up to 7 years of age and studied comparable groups of children given breast milk or alternative milks. References acknowledged by the selected papers were sourced and subjected to the same inclusion and exclusion criteria. The quality of the research selected was assessed using a scale adapted from the Newcastle–Ottawa Scale (Wells, 2001). An overall judgement of the quality of the research was made by the researcher. The same terminology and the database Cochrane Reviews were used to identify any relevant reviews that had previously been published. Results: One thousand seven hundred and eighty-three papers were identified. Of these, 562 were excluded because of their publication date, their apparent irrelevance based on their title (n = 717) or by use of the defined inclusion criteria (n = 497). This gave a final sample selection of seven papers. Breastfeeding had a protective effect for the risk of developing asthma. Children who had been breastfed for any period were less likely to have developed asthma by 7 years of age than those who had only been given formula milk. This risk reduction was more common among children who had been breastfed for longer periods of time compared with children who had been breastfed for only a short period. There was no significant difference in the prevalence of allergic sensitisation among children who had been breastfed compared with those given artificial milks. Discussion: Breastfeeding helps to protect children up to 7 years of age from developing asthma. Despite advisory bodies promoting breastfeeding for its protective effect on the development of allergies, evidence showed the benefits were not significant in reducing the risk of atopy. Collectively, breastfeeding does not protect against allergic asthma in children up to 7 years of age. It is unfortunate that mothers are being encouraged to breastfeed their infants for its protective effect on the development of allergies when evidence is not significant. Conclusion: There are many benefits of breastfeeding but current evidence does not support its effect on reducing the risk of children up to 7 years of age developing allergic asthma.

Nutritional composition of breast milk produced by mothers of preterm infants.

The development of intensive care neonatal units has resulted in the survival of an increasingly larger proportion of low birth weight infants, but many questions remain about the optimal method of feeding this group. It has been suggested that human milk may provide some protection against infection and necrotizing enterocolitis. 1 possibility is that the unique nutritional needs of the preterm infant are matched by the composition of breast milk produced by mothers delivering prematurely. Yet, it has been observed that rapidly growing low birth weight infants fed human milk in usual amounts may fail to put on weight and height at the rates achieved by formula-fed infants and are at risk of developing deficiencies of certain specific nutrients. These data have led to studies designed to evaluate the nutritional composition and adequacy of breast milk produced by mothers delivering before 37 weeks of gestation. Gross et al. determined the concentrations of protein, minerals, and electrolytes in milk obtained from 33 mothers giving birth between 28-36 weeks of pregnancy (preterm) and from 18 mothers delivering between 38-42 weeks of gestation (term). Energy values calculated on the basis of protein, lactose, and fat were similar in the 2 groups and remained constant throughout the 7-28-day postpartum period. Sodium and chloride levels were higher in preterm milk whereas the concentrations of potassium, calcium, phosphorous, and magnesium were similar in milk from both groups of mothers. In a similar study, Schanler and Oh also noted that the total nitrogen content in the milk of mothers delivering preterm was higher for the first 15 days than in a pool of donated milk expressed between 1-32 weeks after birth. The total nitrogen content was not related to alterations in volume of breast milk produced by the 2 groups of mothers. These recent reports confirm earlier observations of a greater concentration of nitrogen in the milk of mothers delivering preterm than in the milk of mothers delivering at term. The clinical significance of these differences is not established.

Treatment With Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors During Pregnancy: Deceleration of Weight Gain Because of Depression or Drug?

Treatment With Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors During Pregnancy: Deceleration of Weight Gain Because of Depression or Drug?

Breast milk and breastfeeding in the 1990s.

The biology of human breast milk, and the policy of encouraging breastfeeding, continue to be the object of much scientific inquiry. The past year has seen several advances in these fields of nutrition, and this article reviews some of the most interesting and pertinent studies. Four general themes have been apparent in the recent literature: 1) the role of breastfeeding and breast milk in the incidence of infectious diseases; 2) the effect of breastfeeding on neurodevelopmental outcome; 3) the nutritional composition of breast milk; and 4) the determinants of breastfeeding among adolescents and ethnic minority mothers. Review of these studies will assist the office-based pediatrician in knowing the scientific rationale, and the best methodology, for the promotion of breastfeeding.