Food Resources Research Articles

National-level resilience: Innovative framework for Energy-Water-Food nexus evaluation

The escalating demand for energy, water, and food (EWF) resources, alongside external stressors such as climate change, is placing significant strain on national systems. Therefore, this paper introduces a novel framework for assessing the resilience of interconnected EWF systems at a national level. The framework utilizes a hybrid approach of network systems modeling and optimization models, integrating sectoral and dependency impacts to offer a comprehensive perspective on the interconnected resilience of EWF components. Applied to Qatar's EWF nexus, the framework revealed significant interdependencies, particularly between water and energy components, that led to cascading failures and challenged nexus resilience. Under single failure scenarios, unmet demands for energy and water ranged from 9 to 59 GWh and 97,000 to 359,000 m3, respectively, with resilience indices from 0.86 to 0.99. In double failure scenarios, significantly higher unmet demands caused the resilience index to drop to 0.43. Due to limited freshwater availability, the food sector is highly vulnerable to groundwater supply disruptions, resulting in an 85.6 % reduction in total crop production under extreme scenarios. Furthermore, the study highlighted resilience-enhancement strategies, such as utilizing treated wastewater for agricultural, industrial, and commercial activities and diversifying energy sources to reduce the risk of cascading failures, which increased the nexus's resilience by 17 %. The proposed framework serves as an essential tool for identifying critical components within the EWF nexus and planning strategies to enhance both operational and structural resilience.

Monitoring water quality parameters impacted by Indonesia’s weather using internet of things

Increasing need for food resources, State of Indonesia to strive to maximize the output of food production. Not only in agriculture but also aquaculture results are also trying to be improved. This is also supported by the increase of Indonesia’s national fish consumption rate from 50.69 Kg per capita in 2018 to 55.37 Kg per capita in 2021. Recent aquaculture research only explored topics about monitoring the cultivation environment. But there have been no studies exploring how bad the impact of weather on the process of farming. Hence, this study aims to measure the influence of weather on freshwater aquaculture pond water quality and analyze its impact on fish growth namely Oreochromis Sp., using pH sensors and dissolved oxygen (DO). Then a weather simulation was carried out based on Indonesia’s tropical climate, which majorly consists of sunny and rainy weather. The experimental results indicate the instability of the pH value during the rainy period. DO values tend to decrease at the end of periods of sunny weather. Moreover, fish growth analysis showed that there was a decrease in food conversion ratio (FCR) by 0.956, specific growth rate (SGR) by 2.13% and survival rate (SR) by 5.715% during rainy weather.

Land-based foraging by polar bears reveals sexual conflict outside mating season.

According to sexual selection theory, the sexes are faced with opposing evolutionary goals. Male fitness benefits from access to females, whereas female fitness is constrained by food resources and safety for themselves and their offspring. Particularly in large solitary carnivores, such as polar bears (Ursus maritimus), these divergent goals can potentially lead to conflict between the sexes. Outside the mating season, when polar bears are on the move across vast distances, the consequences of such conflict can become apparent when individuals arrive at the same food source. To investigate interrelationships between the sexes, we observed successive polar bears visiting a bird breeding colony to feed on clutches of eggs. We found that males succeeded females more frequently and more closely than expected by chance. Moreover, when males were closer to conspecifics, they walked faster, spent less time in the colony and ingested less food. In contrast, female foraging performance was not associated with proximity to other bears. Irrespective of proximity, females generally spent short periods in the colony and ingested fewer clutches than males. Our results suggest that in polar bears, there is a trade-off between the benefits of food intake and the opportunities (in males) and risks (in females) posed by encountering conspecifics.

Dynamic borate ester bond reinforced hydroxyethyl cellulose/corn starch crosslinked film for simple recycling and regeneration.

Endowing biodegradable plastics with easy recyclability can reduce competition with food resources and further enhance their environmental friendliness. In this work, 4-carboxyphenylboronic acid was grafted onto the side chains of hydroxyethyl cellulose and compounded with inexpensive cornstarch. Upon the introduction of tannic acid, stable and reversible borate ester bond rapidly formed, yielding composite biodegradable plastic films with outstanding mechanical properties and facile recyclability. The formation of a dynamic cross-linked network mitigates the aggregation of gelatinized starch molecules, enhancing the flexibility and durability of the crosslinked film. Testing revealed that while maintaining high tensile strength, the elongation at break of the crosslinked film increased by 952.86 %. The static water contact angle was improved from 32.74° to 78.82°, with a change of <5° within 1 min, demonstrating enhanced water resistance. Excellent antioxidant and thermal stability were also characterized, the crosslinked film can be easily dissolved by heating in water at pH = 6.5 and reshaped in water at pH = 7.2. After five times of regeneration, the tensile strength loss was as low as 5.68 %. This eco-friendly and efficient recycling process is promising during green chemistry.

Detection of Nanoplastics Within Complex Environmental and Food Resources Matrices Via Machine Learning

Detection of Nanoplastics Within Complex Environmental and Food Resources Matrices Via Machine Learning

The Role of Mycorrhizal Fungi in Orchids Mycobiont and Orchids

Background: In nature, orchid plants are obligate myco-heterotrophs, and rely on mycorrhizal nutrient resources to grow and sustain in the wild, until they become physiologically active photosynthetic plants. Their seeds lack nutrient reserves and receive the necessary carbon from symbiotic fungi during germination. A mycorrhizal fungus provides nutrients, especially sugars, as well as water to the corresponding host plant. The range and distribution of orchid mycorrhizal fungi influence the survivability of orchid populations in their natural habitats. Mycorrhizae form symbiotic connections with the parenchymatous tissues of the roots of orchid plants. Objective: The objective of this study was to examine the presence of mycorrhiza in the roots of Aerides multiflora during the vegetative phase Methods: Fresh roots were hand-sectioned, and thin sections were observed under the microscope to locate the presence of mycorrhiza. Simultaneously, to observe the expansion of mycorrhiza in the cortical region. Results: During the vegetative phase of plant growth, a peloton-like structure forms within the cortical region of the orchid roots. Mycorrhizae was observed to be distributed throughout the cortical layer of the root. Conclusion: This communication reviews the role of mycorrhiza in orchid plants

Mediterranean Marine Mammals: Possible Future Trends and Threats Due to Mercury Contamination and Interaction with Other Environmental Stressors.

Despite decreasing anthropogenic mercury (Hg) emissions in Europe and the banning and restriction of many persistent organic pollutants (POPs) under the Stockholm Convention, Mediterranean marine mammals still have one of the highest body burdens of persistent pollutants in the world. Moreover, the Mediterranean basin is one of the most sensitive to climate change, with likely changes in the biogeochemical cycle and bioavailability of Hg, primary productivity, and the length and composition of pelagic food webs. The availability of food resources for marine mammals is also affected by widespread overfishing and the increasing number of alien species colonizing the basin. After reporting the most recent findings on the biogeochemical cycle of Hg in the Mediterranean Sea and the physico-chemical and bio-ecological factors determining its exceptional bioaccumulation in odontocetes, this review discusses possible future changes in the bioavailability of the metal. Recent ocean-atmosphere-land models predict that in mid-latitude seas, water warming (which in the Mediterranean is 20% faster than the global average) is likely to decrease the solubility of Hg and favor the escape of the metal to the atmosphere. However, the basin has been affected for thousands of years by natural and anthropogenic inputs of metals and climate change with sea level rise (3.6 ± 0.3 mm year-1 in the last two decades), and the frequency of extreme weather events will likely remobilize a large amount of legacy Hg from soils, riverine, and coastal sediments. Moreover, possible changes in pelagic food webs and food availability could determine dietary shifts and lower growth rates in Mediterranean cetaceans, increasing their Hg body burden. Although, in adulthood, many marine mammals have evolved the ability to detoxify monomethylmercury (MMHg) and store the metal in the liver and other organs as insoluble HgSe crystals, in Mediterranean populations more exposed to the metal, this process can deplete the biological pool of Se, increasing their susceptibility to infectious diseases and autoimmune disorders. Mediterranean mammals are also among the most exposed in the world to legacy POPs, micro- and nanoplastics, and contaminants of emerging interest. Concomitant exposure to these synthetic chemicals may pose a much more serious threat than the Se depletion. Unfortunately, as shown by the literature data summarized in this review, the most exposed populations are those living in the NW basin, the main feeding and reproductive area for most Mediterranean cetaceans, declared a sanctuary for their protection since 2002. Thus, while emphasizing the adoption of all available approaches to mitigate anthropogenic pressure with fishing and maritime traffic, it is recommended to direct future research efforts towards the assessment of possible biological effects, at the individual and population levels, of chronic and simultaneous exposure to Hg, legacy POPs, contaminants of emerging interest, and microplastics.

Contributing to sustainable smallholder agriculture through optimizing key agricultural inputs in China

Smallholder agriculture contributes substantially to global food production, yet often does not follow the most sustainable practices. Different agricultural inputs result in variegated and unpredictable economic and environmental outcomes. Here, we developed a generalizable approach to promote multi-objective coordination by optimizing smallholder agricultural inputs, and then applied it in winter wheat-summer maize rotation systems in the North China Plain. We found that smallholder farmers used a large range of agricultural inputs, with maximum and minimum values differing by a factor of 2.4–14. Using a structural equation model, we determined that pesticide, working hours, irrigating water, and chemical N fertilizer were the key inputs influencing food security, economic sustainability, resource sustainability, and environmental sustainability, respectively, with standardized path coefficients of −0.224, −0.436, −0.643, and −0.901. Lastly, we calculated that optimizing agricultural inputs can potentially improve food security, economic sustainability, resource sustainability, and environmental sustainability by 9–27%, 15–61%, 8–20%, and 5–14%, respectively. Our framework provides a generalizable approach for smallholder agriculture-dominated areas to achieve multi-objective sustainability.

Individual dietary specialization and intraspecific morphological divergence of an endemic fish species: the case of Glanidium ribeiroi in the Iguassu ecoregion

ABSTRACT Because of the importance of information about endemic species and global biodiversity ecoregion, we tested the hypothesis that individuals of Glanidium ribeiroi (endemic species in the Iguassu ecoregion) are specialists and that this specialization decreases with increasing body size, especially concerning the size of the mouth and head, which can be limiting for the quantity and size of prey consumed by smaller individuals. Fish sampling was conducted monthly using gill nets and longlines from 2013 to 2016 in the main channel of the Iguaçu River and two tributaries. We observed the consumption of aquatic insects by smaller individuals and seeds, unidentified fish, and Decapoda by larger individuals. Individual dietary specialization was high and related to head width. The morphological traits of smaller-sized individuals were related to displacement and movement (larger peduncle), and the larger-sized individuals were related to high performance in the exploitation and prey acquisition (larger head and mouth, dorsal eyes, longer intestines). Our results highlight the importance of assessing individual variations within a population, favoring an understanding of population dynamics. In addition, morphological differences may imply differences in the use of habitat and food resources between individuals of larger and smaller body sizes and influence individual specialization.

A pilot study on the isotopic characterization of feeding habits of Diptera in a tropical rain forest

Flies (Diptera) are among the most diverse groups of insects and are known to utilize various food resources, including plants, detritus, microbial tissues, and fresh and dead animal tissues. However, their feeding habits in the field remain poorly understood. We conducted a pilot study to apply stable nitrogen (N) and carbon (C) isotope techniques to examine the feeding habits of flies in a tropical rain forest in Sarawak, Malaysia. The fly samples comprised 13 families and >18 species. The results showed significant differences in nitrogen and carbon isotope ratios (δ15N and δ13C) among families and species within a family. The observed pattern is largely consistent with their known feeding habits; flies that use carcasses and carrion as diets (e.g., Sarcophagidae and Calliphoridae) have significantly higher δ15N values than those likely utilizing plant-based diets (e.g., Cecidomyiidae). There were significant differences in δ15N values among the six species of Calliphoridae, which is consistent with insect succession on carcasses. The differences in δ15N may be explained by the use of carrion at different stages of decomposition, because microbial decomposition can lead to the 15N enrichment. Tachinid flies had relatively low δ13C values, reflecting the use of lepidopterans as a host. This pilot study shows that the δ15N and δ13C values of flies provide insights into the diversity of feeding habits of fly communities, which could also serve as an indicator of resource availability in an entire ecosystem.

Industrial Buyers’ Food Neophobia – A Barrier to Market Entry? A Case Study of Introducing Lumpfish to South Korea and Vietnam

The need to find sustainable food sources to feed the growing population makes the utilization of all available food resources especially important. But introducing new food is challenging and often fails. In the consumer behavior literature, food neophobia (FN), the unwillingness to try new food, has been identified as a crucial factor in understanding the adoption of new food products. However, limited research can be found on the role of FN in industrial buyers’ choice of new food products. Industrial buyers are important gatekeepers for the introduction of new food products as they decide what is offered to the consumers and may stop any market entry long before a new food product reaches the consumers’ attention. Thus, the understanding of the potential FN in industrial buying behavior, in different markets, is important to succeed with the introduction of new food products. In this study, we have explored FN as a potential barrier to the adoption of a new seafood product, farmed lumpfish (Cyclopterus lumpus), by industrial buyers in South Korea and Vietnam. The results revealed differences between the two countries’ industrial buyers, with South Koreans demonstrating more FN than the Vietnamese. This contradicts with the consumer research showing that FN decreases with increased income, education, and urbanization.

Agroecosystem-based agricultural genetic resources for balanced and diversified food, nutrition, health, business, geographical indication and environment

ABSTRACT Nepal has 15 distinct agroecosystems spread across three major agroecozones: Tarai, Mid Hill, and High Hill. These regions support a rich variety of agrobiodiversity. This paper examines the significance of native agrobiodiversity within each of these agroecosystems for diversified food, nutrition, health, business and environment. The information presented is derived from various literature sources, discussions with key experts, and the authors’ own experiences. Each of these agroecosystems has cultivated and preserved numerous unique species, landraces, and genotypes of agrobiodiversity, including crops, forages, livestock, agro-insects, agro-microorganisms, and aquatic genetic resources. This agrobiodiversity is deeply connected with local cultures, traditional knowledge, and skills. The high diversity of agricultural genetic resources (AGRs) within Nepal’s relatively small area is a crucial factor for ensuring food security, nutrition, health, business opportunities, and environmental sustainability. Many niche products, prized for their purity, quality, taste, health benefits, and nutritional value, are sold at premium prices. However, the focus on production-centric agricultural programs over the years has led to the replacement of many niche-specific varieties by more uniform and limited ones. Introducing new genotypes into a particular agroecosystem may undermine the principles of ecological agriculture. Therefore, it is essential to enhance the competitiveness of native AGRs and associated indigenous technologies within each agroecosystem.

Assessing the Reach and Engagement Effectiveness of Disseminating Food and Nutrition Information on Social Media Channels.

This study utilized Facebook and Instagram as communication channels for disseminating evidence-based food and nutrition information to low-income adults. From February 2021 to October 2022, 442 identical posts were shared across both platforms for audience reach and engagement. Posts were categorized in two ways: hedonic and three levels of utilitarian (informative, convenience, utility), based on widely applied social media uses and effects theory (Uses and Gratifications Perspective); and food/nutrition topics (dietary guidance, mealtime behaviors, recipes, food resource management, health behaviors, and community building). From predominantly image-based posts (82.6%), reach and engagement for Instagram (136,621 versus 6096, respectively) outperformed Facebook (83,275 versus 1276, respectively). Analysis of covariance of rank-order reach and engagement metrics (likes, replies, shares) showed Facebook engagement was consistent across hedonic and utilitarian categories while Instagram showed highest reach and engagement for utilitarian posts, especially those emphasizing food affordability. Facebook and Instagram differed in which food/nutrition topics achieved maximal reach and engagement. Fifteen posts were randomly selected for qualitative analysis to identify features reflecting engagement levels. Low-engagement posts featured low-color-contrast or less-appealing images, especially on Instagram. This study offers insights for practitioners and researchers aiming to use social media to promote healthy food and nutrition.

Innovative Foraging Behavior of Urban Birds: Use of Insect Food Provided by Cars

Despite high-quality insect food being often restricted in cities, insects are important for the development of birds. Nonetheless, plenty of insects are smashed on cars, and they are available for those species that are able to use them. We used both our own data and community science and Internet sources for surveying global, national, and local data about birds using insects on cars. Our results contained a total of 308 observations of birds collecting insects on car panels, which indicated that 39 species used this food resource since 1928 in 33 countries. Most observations considered the House Sparrow, followed by the White Wagtail and several species of corvids. European urban bird species observed to use insects on cars had a larger residual brain size. There was also some indication that bird species using insects on cars had a larger number of innovations (i.e., production of novel behaviors), greater diet generalism, and longer times living in urbanized areas than birds not observed using insects on cars. Often these species are also resident and able to use food offered in feeding sites. We assume that more bird species will use insects on cars in the future, as urban insect populations continue to decline, and thereby insects on cars will increasingly become more important sources of food for urban birds.

Edible Insects: Nutritional, Medicinal and Allergenic Aspects

Edible insects are a natural food resource that provides nutritional, economic, and ecological benefits to many ethnic and tribal communities of Northeast India. Because of the warm and humid atmosphere, entomophagy is popular culturally and spiritually in tropical and subtropical countries. Many insects, such as lepidopterans, orthopterans, dictyopterans, isopterans, and hymenopterans are all considered common food sources. They have high nutritional and medicinal value that can contribute to food security, health promotion, and environmental sustainability. Natural enemies of pests may include various organisms like predators, parasitoids, pathogens and trap crops. However, they also have some health implications and allergenicity that need to be addressed by scientific research, regulatory policies, and public education. This article aims to explore the nutritive and medicinal paradigm of edible insects of northeast India and examine their health implications and allergenicity. It will review the existing literature on the topic and provide recommendations for future research, policy development, and consumer education.

The comparison of gut microbiota between wild and captive Asian badgers (Meles leucurus) under different seasons

The gut microbiota plays an important role in the immunology, physiology and growth and development of animals. However, currently, there is a lack of available sequencing data on the gut microbiota of Asian badgers. Studying the gut microbiota of Asian badgers could provide fundamental data for enhancing productivity and immunity of badgers’ breeding, as well as for the protection of wild animals. In this study, we first characterized the composition and structure of the gut microbiota in the large intestines of wild and captive Asian badgers during summer and winter by sequencing the V3-V4 region of the 16S ribosomal RNA gene. A total of 9 dominant phyla and 12 genera among the bacterial communities of the large intestines exhibited significant differences. Our results showed that Firmicutes and Proteobacteria were the most predominant in both wild and captive badgers, regardless of the season. Romboutsia, Streptococcus and Enterococcus may represent potential sources of zoonoses, warranting further attention and study. Our findings indicated that the diversity and availability of food resources were the most important influencing factors on the gut microbiota of Asian badgers, providing fundamental data for the protection and conservation of wild animals. Variation in the gut microbiota due to season, age and sex in both wild and captive Asian badgers should be considered in future research directions. Furthermore, combined multi-omics studies could provide more information for wild animal conservation, and enhancing our understanding of the molecular mechanism between the microbiota and host.

Nutraceutical and Pharmacological Benefits of Some Leguminous Plants of North‐Western Himalaya

ABSTRACTLegumes have various types of active constituents with disinfection and disease‐prevention properties. They are highly nutritious, providing carbohydrates, proteins, fibre, vitamins, copper, zinc, iron, magnesium and phosphorus. They are free of saturated fats and cholesterol. The Fabaceae or Leguminosae is regarded as legume family, which includes a major group of plant resources in the north‐western Himalayan region, primarily used as food as well as medicine. The term ‘Nutraceutical’ is derived from two words ‘nutrient’ means nourishing food component and ‘pharmaceutical’, which means a medicinal drug. It refers to any product derived from food resources having extra health benefits and nutritional value. These include minerals, vitamins, herbs and their extracts, which provide us with health benefits and play a significant role in the prevention and treatment of various diseases like diabetes, renal disorders, gastrointestinal ailments, cardiovascular diseases, cancer, Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, allergies, eye conditions, obesity and so forth. Therefore, nutraceuticals may contribute to preventing chronic diseases, improving health, postponing the ageing process and increasing life expectancy by supporting the functions and integrity of the body. The north‐western Himalayan region has several species of legumes of utmost significance due to their nutraceutical and therapeutic potential. Among these, major legumes are lentil, chickpea, soybean, kidney bean and groundnut, while several others legumes have rather limited commercial significance. Various parts, that is, young pods, fresh or mature seeds, leaves and flowers, of these legume plants are used for human consumption. In this article, efforts have been made to compile the nutraceutical and medicinal inferences of leguminous plants of north‐west Himalaya. The information provided also pertains to the nutritional benefits, antinutritional properties and distribution of legumes in various regions of north‐western Himalaya through the analysis of different works available in the literature.

Modelling the availability of water, energy, and food resources in transboundary river basins to achieve Sustainable Development Goals 2, 6, and 7

The Water-Energy-Food Nexus (WEFN) has gained international attention as an approach for managing water more holistically, building on the progress made by the Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM) approach. However, modelling the availability of water, energy, and food and their interconnections is complex, with major barriers that include the availability of both data and modelling platforms capable of assessing the interconnected systems of the WEFN. There have been attempts to model resource availability in each sector generally, but few attempts to consider the WEFN in complex transboundary basins, especially considering Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Here, a water, energy, and food availability model was developed using a combination of remotely sensed, national government reported, and global datasets. The model explores the complex interactions between the physical availability and production of water, energy, and food for several subbasins representing different states. Results showed the potential impacts of socioeconomic development, population changes and transboundary cooperation on resources. Transboundary cooperation in the case study Ma Basin in Southeast Asia, under existing resources and operations could improve monthly food security and reduce coal power operations using excess hydropower in the basin during the dry season. These findings show that transboundary cooperation improves access to energy and food, whilst potentially reducing demands for water. Furthermore, the research has highlighted ways in which transboundary cooperation can further assist in attaining SDGs 12 and 13 on responsible production and climate action, respectively. The modelling framework is easily transferable and can support similar analysis in other basins, contributing to global attainment of several SDGs.

Multiple climate change stressors reduce the emergence success of gravel-spawning fish species and alter temporal emergence patterns

Climate change, with its profound effects on stream sediment, hydrological, and temperature dynamics, will exacerbate impacts on habitat conditions for many species, particularly those with vulnerable early life stages relying on the hyporheic zone, such as gravel-spawning fishes. Due to the complex and interactive nature of multiple stressor effects, we employed large-scale outdoor mesocosms to systemically test how the reproductive success of three gravel-spawning fish species brown trout (Salmo trutta), nase, (Chrondrostoma nasus) and Danube salmon (Hucho hucho) was affected by individual and combined effects of warming (+3–4 °C), fine sediment (increase in <0.85 mm by 22 %) and low-flow (eightfold discharge-reduction). Fine sediment had the most detrimental effect on emergence rate and fry length in all three species, reducing the emergence rate to zero in brown trout, 9 % in nase, and 4 % in Danube salmon. The emergence mortality caused by fine sediment surpassed that of hatching distinctly, suggesting that negative effects due to hypoxia were considerably exacerbated by entombment. Warming had only minor effects as a single stressor, but low flow reduced emergence rates of the spring spawning species nase and Danube salmon by 8 and 50 %, respectively. In combined treatments including fine sediment, however, the emergence success of all three species responded strongly negatively, even in the cyprinid species nase, which showed little interactive effects between stressors regarding hatching success. Warming and fine sediment also led to the earlier emergence of fry, implying a risk of asynchrony with available food resources. This study dramatically shows that climate change can have deleterious impacts on the reproductive success of gravel-spawning fish species, irrespective of taxonomic or ecological traits.

Ingestion of chitosan-starch blends: Effect on the survival of supralittoral amphipods

Sandy beach ecosystems are particularly affected by plastic pollution. Supralittoral amphipods are important components of the food web in sandy beaches and their ability to ingest microplastics and bioplastics has been assessed. Chitosan, a polysaccharide obtained by deacetylation of chitin, the second most abundant polymer in the world, represents an interesting component to produce novel bioplastics in combination with other biopolymers like starch. Here, the possibility of ingesting chitosan-starch blends and the possible effects on the amphipod Talitrus saltator were investigated. Groups of adult individuals were fed with sheets containing mixtures of chitosan and starch in different percentages for 7 and 14 days. The results showed that chitosan ingestion is dependent on the percentage of starch present in the mixture. Moreover, FTIR analyses of both sheets and faecal pellets after consumption show that chitosan is not digested. Furthermore, the survival rate of amphipods fed with a mixture of chitosan and starch decreases after one week compared to the control groups (100 % starch and paper), and drops drastically to 0 % after two weeks the experiment began. In addition, consumption of 100 % chitosan is negligible. Therefore, the results of the experimental observations evidenced that chitosan is avoided as food resource and its consumption significantly affects the survival capacity of T. saltator. It is emphasized that the release of mixtures of chitosan and starch into the marine environment appears to be dangerous for littoral amphipods.