Number Of Fungal Species Research Articles

Structure and distribution of sensor histidine kinases in the fungal kingdom.

Two-component systems (TCSs) are diverse cell signaling pathways that play a significant role in coping with a wide range of environmental cues in both prokaryotic and eukaryotic organisms. These transduction circuitries are primarily governed by histidine kinases (HKs), which act as sensing proteins of a broad variety of stressors. To date, nineteen HK groups have been previously described in the fungal kingdom. However, the structure and distribution of these prominent sensing proteins were hitherto investigated in a limited number of fungal species. In this study, we took advantage of recent genomic resources in fungi to refine the fungal HK classification by deciphering the structural diversity and phylogenetic distribution of HKs across a large number of fungal clades. To this end, we browsed the genome of 91 species representative of different fungal clades, which yielded 726 predicted HK sequences. A domain organization analysis, coupled with a robust phylogenomic approach, led to an improved categorization of fungal HKs. While most of the compiled sequences were categorized into previously described fungal HK groups, some new groups were also defined. Overall, this study provides an improved overview of the structure, distribution, and evolution of HKs in the fungal kingdom.

Species and Speciation in the Termite-Cultivated Fungus Termitomyces

Termitomyces is a genus of basidiomycete fungi cultivated by termites of the subfamily Macrotermitinae. This symbiosis originated in central Africa, and subsequently, the fungus-growing termites have colonized almost the entire African continent including Madagascar as well as significant parts of Asia. Around 40 species of Termitomyces have been described based on morphology of the sexual fruit bodies, which are associated with some 330 species of fungus-growing termites distributed over 11 genera. However, the total number of fungal species may be higher as not all species regularly produce mushrooms, and morphological variation does not seem to be a reliable criterion for species delimitation in this group. In this study we estimated the total number of species based on ITS-barcode criteria and assessed host specificity and geographic differentiation to infer patterns of speciation. We estimated the total number of phylogenetic species using two methods of DNA sequence-based species delimitation; Automatic Barcode Gap Discovery (ABGD) and the Generalized Mixed Yule Coalescent (GMYC) model on a large dataset of over 1,500 ITS sequences from laboratory cultures, fungarium specimens and the public database NCBI Genbank. This resulted in an estimated 87 species hypotheses using ABGD and 94 species hypotheses using the GMYC model. A phylogenetic reconstruction was performed on representative sequences of the 87 species hypotheses identified by ABGD (the most conservative estimate) constrained by a well-supported phylogeny based on whole-genome data to address host specificity and geographical differentiation. Five main clades were recovered which generally were associated with species of one or two host genera, except for samples collected from the genera Microtermes and Ancistrotermes, which formed two separate non-sister clades. We did not find any evidence for long-term host fidelity as would be expected for species with strict uniparental vertical symbiont transmission. We found strict geographic separation between African and Asian species of Termitomyces and infer a minimum of seven inter-continental migrations. We show that epigeous fruiting of the T. microcarpus group has a single evolutionary origin in Africa and that fruiting in species of this group likely is induced by the fungus rather than by the host-termite species. In contrast, fruiting in the symbionts of some species of Microtermes and Macrotermes may be suppressed by the host-termite species, since mushrooms of certain fungal species are found when those species are associated with some termite-host genera, but never when associated with other host genera. We discuss some examples of incongruence between morphological and phylogenetic species concepts and give suggestions to improve the taxonomy of the genus Termitomyces.

Effects of Maize/Peanut Intercropping and Nitrogen Fertilizer Application on Soil Fungal Community Structure

Maize/peanut intercropping may improve soil health through reducing nitrogen (N) fertilization. However, the effects of maize/peanut intercropping combined with reduced N fertilization on the soil fungal community structure have not been well reported. Using a long-term localized micro-zone experiment, we investigated the combined effects of intercropping and N fertilizer application on soil fungal community diversity and composition. Three cropping patterns (maize/peanut intercropping, maize monoculture, and peanut monoculture) and three N application levels (0 kg·hm−2, 150 kg·hm−2, and 300 kg·hm−2) were assessed. The results showed that the total numbers of fungal species and unique species (operational taxonomic units, OTUs) in both maize and peanut soils tended to first increase and then decrease with increasing N application. Compared with monoculture, the numbers of total OTUs and unique OTUs in intercropped maize soil decreased by 4.14% and 12.79%, respectively, but the total numbers of OTUs and unique OTUs in peanut soil increased by 1.08% and 3.78%, respectively. With increasing N application, the soil fungal Ace and Chao indices of maize soil first increased and then decreased, while the fungal Shannon, Ace, and Chao indices of peanut soil decreased. Compared with the monoculture system, intercropping significantly reduced the maize soil fungal Ace and Chao indices but increased the peanut soil fungal Shannon, Ace, and Chao indices. Nitrogen application and intercropping significantly altered the fungal community structure of maize soil, while N application had no significant effect on the fungal community structure of peanut soil, though intercropping significantly changed the fungal community structure of peanut soil. At the phylum level, Ascomycota, Basidiomycota, Mortierellomycota, unclassified_k_Fungi, and Chytridiomycota were the dominant taxa. Redundancy analysis (RDA) showed that soil nitrate (NO3−) content was the main environmental factor shaping the soil fungal community. In conclusion, excessive N fertilization (300 kg·hm−2) can reduce soil fungal community diversity; maize/peanut intercropping reversed the negative effect of N application on fungal community of peanut soil, but not that of maize soil. Soil NO3− content is the primary environmental driver of soil fungal communities.

New additions to the list of fungi of Türkiye-3

The book titled "List of Fungi of Türkiye", which is an important document for researchers working mycology, was published in 2020 and contains a checklist of all micro and macrofungus species recorded from Turkey. In addition, all fungal species are given Turkish scientific names in this book. In 2022 and 2024, two additional articles were prepared and the records after the publication of the book were included in these articles. With these studies, it is tried to keep the book and the checklist up to date. The present study is a continuation of these articles, and a total of 92 taxa (1 division, 3 families, 6 genera and 82 species) recorded from Türkiye by various researchers because of the literature searches have been added to the checklist. As a result of three update articles published after the publication of the book, the number of fungal species recorded in Turkey reached 6126 and the total number of taxa reached 7902. In this study, the method followed in the writing of the book was followed and Turkish scientific names were given to the 92 taxa identified as new records from Türkiye.

The Fungal Development During The Leaf Litter Process Decomposition of Avicennia marina

The existence of mangrove ecosystems decreases from land conversion into residential areas, industries, plantations, road facilities and the construction of ponds. This research was conducted in the mangrove forest area of Secanang Belawan Village, Medan, at the Biotechnology Laboratory of the Department of Forestry, Faculty of Agriculture, USU and at the Microbiology Laboratory, Department of Biology, Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences, USU Medan. The study's objective was to identify the different fungal species that were present at 10 ppt salinity levels, 10–20 ppt, and 20–30 ppt as well as the pace at which Avicennia marina leaf litter. The research method used litter bags filled with leaf litter of Avicennia marina (50 g) with 7 treatments, 3 replications and 3 levels of salinity. The A. marina leaf litter that had a salt level of 10 ppt had the highest level of decomposition. The dry weight of leaf litter left in the litter bag, which is 4.92 g on average. The largest dry weight of the remaining litter was found in an environment with a salinity of 20 – 30 ppt, which is an average of 10.42 g. The rate of decomposition of A. marina leaf litter in an environment with a salt level greater than 30 ppt is 6.53/yr (or almost equal to residence period of = 0.15 yr). The number of fungal species discovered in the leaf litter of A. marina, which goes through a breakdown process at salinity levels between 0 and 10 ppt and contains 9 species, is another way to observe the impact of salt level. In comparison to the large at salinity levels of 10 to 20 ppt and 20 to 30 ppt, respectively, there were populations of fungus that underwent the process of decomposition in A. marina leaf litter, with an average of 5.99 x 102 cfu/ml and 5.5 x 102 cfu/ml, the fungal population that was the highest concentration was 10.72 x 102 cfu/ml

Forest management practices change topsoil carbon pools and their stability

Forest management may lead to changes in soil carbon and its stability, and the effects are variable owing to the differences in management methods. Our study aimed to determine the impacts of different forest management practices on soil carbon pools and their stability. We chose a natural oak forest, where different forest-management strategies have been practiced. Forest management strategies included cultivating target trees by removing interference trees (CNFM), optimizing the forest spatial structure by the structural parameters (SBFM), reducing the stand density by harvesting timber (SFCS), and using unmanaged forests as controls (NT). Topsoil (depth of 0–10 cm) was collected after eight years of forest management. Soil organic carbon (SOC), labile organic carbon components and the microbial community were determined, and SOC chemical compositions were assessed by nuclear magnetic resonance. The CNFM and SFCS strategies had smaller dissolved organic carbon contents than the NT and SBFM strategies, and the CNFM strategy increased the ratio of alkyl C and o-alkyl C, indicating that the SOC was more stable. Forest management strategies changed the SOC and its labile C pool by adjusting the soil total nitrogen,β-glucosidase, cellobiohydrolase, fine-root carbon and fungal operational taxonomic units, and the SOC chemical compositions were influenced by the number of fungal species. These findings suggest that the soil organic carbon decreased, but its stability increased in the natural forest under the practice of cultivating target trees by removing interference trees. The SOC pools could be regulated by soil nitrogen, enzyme activity, fine roots, and fungi, while soil fungi could affect SOC stability.

Communities of Fungi on Plates Coated with Antifouling Paint Modified by Nanoparticles

In the Sevastopol Bay (Black Sea), in the autumn period of 2021, fungal complexes were studied on plexiglass plates painted with anti-fouling enamel Bioplast-52 (control) and coatings based on it modified with nanoparticles (NP) Zn-FeO, ZnO and Fe-SiO. 16 species of fungi belonging to seven genera, five families, five orders, three classes of the Ascomycota division have been identified. The species composition was dominated by representatives of the genera Aspergillus (7 species) and Alternaria (4 species). The total number of fungal species isolated on substrates varied from 3 (with ZnO NP) to 8 (Bioplast-52) and with Zn-FeO NP), and by exposure time – from 3 (fourteenth day) to 14 species (sixty-first day). There were no representatives of the genera Aspergillus and Alternaria on the coating modified with Fe-CuO NP; only species of the genus Aspergillus were found on the coating with ZnO NP, the smallest number and number of fungal species were found on these coatings. Fe-CuO and ZnO nanoparticles enhanced the antifouling properties of Bioplast-52 enamel.

Fungal colonisation on wood surfaces weathered at diverse climatic conditions

Natural weathering test at two different European climatic zones were conducted to investigate simultaneously both, the fungal colonisation and weathering process of Scots pine wood (Pinus sylvestris L.). The hypothesis was that the wood performing differently in various climate conditions might affect fungal infestation. The colour changes, wettability, and glossiness were measured as indicators of weathering progress of wood together with an assessment of fungal diversity. Different intensities in weathering, occupancy, and colonisation of fungi on wooden surface were detected. A higher number of fungal species was found on wood exposed to the warm temperate climates compared to subarctic or boreal climates. The dominant fungal species in both locations were from the genera Cladosporium and Aureobasidium.

Soil nutrients and the responses of microbial community structure to pine bark and vinegar residues in blueberry cultivation

The addition of suitable acidic organic materials to improve the soil for blueberry (Vaccinium spp.) cultivation is the foundation for ensuring the sustainable development of blueberry industry in China. However, the effects of managing orchards with different inputs of organic material to improve the soil nutrients varied substantially. To unearth the best types of organic material to improve the soil fertility for blueberry cultivation and the rates to use in their application, a cultivation experiment used rooting zone restriction container and one-year-old seedlings of highbush blueberry (Vaccinium corymbosum L. variety “Legacy”) as the test materials and pure soil as the control (CK) in this study. We compared the effects of three rates of application of pine bark and vinegar residue on the soil nutrients and microbial community structures, three concentrations of 1884, 3768, and 5652 m3 km−2 of pine bark and three of 2826, 5652, and 8478 m3 km−2 vinegar residue were designed to add to the soil, and they were designated PB1, PB2, and PB3 and VR1, VR2, and VR3, respectively. Surface soil samples were collected for analysis after the blueberry shrubs had been planted for one year. The results showed that compared with the CK, the PB1 treatment significantly increased the total potassium (TK), alkaline hydrolyzed nitrogen (AN) and available phosphorus (AP) contents in the soil. The PB2 and PB3 treatments significantly enhanced the soil organic matter (SOM), total phosphorus (TP), AN, and AP contents but significantly reduced the microbial biomass carbon (MBC), microbial biomass nitrogen (MBN), and microbial biomass phosphorus (MBP) contents. The VR1, VR2 and VR3 treatments significantly increased the contents of soil pH, total nitrogen (TN), available potassium (AK), SOM, AN, MBC and MBP. The PB1, PB2, VR1, VR2, and VR3 treatments markedly enhanced the bacterial Shannon index. However, the VR3 treatment markedly reduced the number of fungal species and the Chao 1, ACE, Simpson, and Shannon indices when compared with those of the CK. The soil fungal diversity was more easily regulated by soil nutrients than the bacterial diversity. A redundancy analysis showed that the dominant bacterial phyla were primarily regulated by the soil AN, while the dominant fungal phyla were primarily regulated by the SOM and MBN. In conclusion, the vinegar residue was more effective than the pine bark at improving the soil nutrients. The VR2 treatment not only significantly improved the soil nutrients but also maintained the soil microbial diversity, which rendered it the best organic material to improve the cultivation of blueberry soil.

How, not if, is the question mycologists should be asking about DNA-based typification.

Fungal metabarcoding of substrates such as soil, wood, and water is uncovering an unprecedented number of fungal species that do not seem to produce tangible morphological structures and that defy our best attempts at cultivation, thus falling outside the scope of the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants. The present study uses the new, ninth release of the species hypotheses of the UNITE database to show that species discovery through environmental sequencing vastly outpaces traditional, Sanger sequencing-based efforts in a strongly increasing trend over the last five years. Our findings challenge the present stance of some in the mycological community - that the current situation is satisfactory and that no change is needed to "the code" - and suggest that we should be discussing not whether to allow DNA-based descriptions (typifications) of species and by extension higher ranks of fungi, but what the precise requirements for such DNA-based typifications should be. We submit a tentative list of such criteria for further discussion. The present authors hope for a revitalized and deepened discussion on DNA-based typification, because to us it seems harmful and counter-productive to intentionally deny the overwhelming majority of extant fungi a formal standing under the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants.

Climate and geochemistry at different altitudes influence soil fungal community aggregation patterns in alpine grasslands

Fungi represent key ecosystem factors that affect plant growth and development and improve soil structure and fertility. Due to changes in environmental conditions, fungi show strong spatial heterogeneity along altitudinal gradients. Current knowledge of the driving mechanisms and effects of soil fungal community construction at high altitudes is very limited on a regional scale. We collected soil samples from alpine grasslands at six altitudinal gradients (2813–5228 m) in the high-altitude area of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau. The horizontal distance of the sampling zone spanned 1500 km. Distribution patterns, key influencing factors for soil fungal diversity, and dominant mechanisms of ecological processes in the alpine grasslands were analyzed. We found that the diversity of the soil fungal communities was significantly different at different altitudes; with increasing altitude, the number of fungal species increased. Mucoromycota was better adapted to alpine grassland ecosystems at altitudes of above 4000 m. Dispersal limitation was the main ecological control process among stochastic processes. With the increase of altitude, the dominant role of dispersal limitation gradually decreased, and the proportion of other random processes such as ecological drift gradually increased. In this study, soil geochemical factors (soil organic carbon, SOC; total phosphorus, TP) mainly influenced the composition of the fungal community in the low altitude region, while climatic factors (mean annual temperature, MAT) were the key factors and main driving forces for the composition of the soil fungal community in the alpine meadow in the high altitude region. This study supplements the information on the biogeographic distribution patterns and environmental drivers of fungal communities along altitudinal gradients at high altitudes on a regional scale. Our results highlight the effects of temperature change on fungal community composition in high altitude regions of alpine grasslands. Subsurface fungal communities should be considered when predicting the function of alpine grassland ecosystems under future climate change.

Paralogous FgIDO genes with differential roles in tryptophan catabolism, fungal development and virulence in Fusarium graminearum

Indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase (Ido) is a tryptophan-degrading enzyme that is widely distributed across species. Ido catalyzes the first step of tryptophan (TRP) degradation and drives the de novo synthesis of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+) coenzymes via the kynurenine (KYN) pathway. The budding yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae possesses a single IDO gene (BNA2) that is responsible for NAD+ synthesis, whereas a number of fungal species contain multiple IDO genes. However, the biological roles of IDO paralogs in plant pathogens remain unclear. In the current study, we identified three FgIDOs from the wheat head blight fungus Fusarium graminearum. FgIDOA/B/C expression was significantly induced upon TRP treatment. Targeted disruption of FgIDOA and/or FgIDOB caused different levels of NAD+ auxotrophy, thus resulting in pleotropic phenotypic defects. Loss of FgIDOA resulted in abnormal conidial morphology, reduced mycelial growth, decreased virulence in wheat heads and reduced deoxynivalenol accumulation. Exogenous addition of KYN or various intermediates involved in the KYN pathway rescued auxotrophy of the mutants. Metabolomics analysis revealed shifts toward alternative TRP degradation pathways to melatonin and indole derivatives in mutants lacking FgIDOB. Upregulation of partner genes in auxotrophic mutants and the capacity to rescue the auxotroph by overexpressing a partner gene indicated functional complementation among FgIDOA/B/C. Taken together, the results of this study provide insights into differential roles in paralogous FgIDOs and how fungal TRP catabolism modulates fungal development and virulence.

Comparative Analysis of Foliar Diseases of Some Native and Non-Native Tree Species in Belarus and Siberia

Urban green spaces are known to be subjected to additional anthropogenic stress. Using native plants in monoculture, i.e., planting trees of the same species, may favour disease outbreaks and plant death. Non-native plants to be used in large cities for creating sustainable plantations are being searched for worldwide. Meanwhile, it is necessary to control plant pathogens in the variable conditions of the region and natural habitat. In Siberian cities, non-native European trees are used, and non-native Siberian plants are introduced in Belarus. This article reports long-term observations of foliar fungal pathogens attacking 21 woody plants (19 European, 2 Siberian) in Siberian and Belarusian cities. In both regions, 48 leaf fungal pathogens were detected, with powdery mildew fungi predominating in Belarus and leaf spotting fungi prevailing in Siberia. In both research regions, the greatest number of fungal species was found on Syringa vulgaris L. In Siberia, many pathogens were found on the non-native European plant Berberis vulgaris (9 species) and native plant Caragana arborescens Lam. (8 species). We have not detected the pathogens on European plants: Acer campestre L., Acer platanoides L., Euonymus europaeus L., Lonicera caprifolium L. in urban green areas in Siberia, while we have identified one to four foliar fungal pathogens on these plants in Belarus. To sum up: more pathogens were found on native plants in Siberia and Belarus; some leaf pathogen species (Sawadaea tulasnei (Fuckel) Homma, Erysiphe alphitoides (Griffon & Maubl.) U. Braun & S. Takam., Cladosporium syringae (Oudem.) Montem., Erysiphe syringae Schwein., Erysiphe palczewskii (Jacz.) U. Braun & S. Takam.) followed their host plants (Acer tataricum L., Syringa vulgaris L., Caragana arborescens Lam.) when introduced into new areas; and some local pathogens were also observed to spread to the non-native plants of closely related species.

Aphyllophoroid fungi (Basidiomycota) of the planned protected area Shuya River Mid-course (Republic of Karelia)

The paper provides data on aphyllophoroid fungi of the planned protected area Shuya River Mid-course situated in the south of the Republic of Karelia. Forests in the area are spruce stands and mixed spruce-pine, spruce-deciduous stands 90–160 years old. The checklist of aphyllophoroid fungi includes 128 species. Ten species are novel for the Karelia olonetsensis biogeographic province (Athelia epiphylla, Byssomerulius albostramineus, Ceriporia reticulata, Gloeocystidiellum porosum, Kurtia argillacea, Mucronella calva, Phlebia cretacea, P. lilascens, Tomentella coerulea, T. lapida). Locations of 3 species of aphyllophoroid fungi (Diplomitoporus crustulinus, Lentaria afflata, Tomentella crinalis) and 1 agaricoid species (Stropharia aeruginosa) listed in the Red Data Book of the Republic of Karelia (2020) as well as 13 indicator and 9 specialized species of old-growth forests have been found in the study area. The list includes data on their habitats, substrates and frequency. The substrate for 71 species was coniferous wood and 66 species were recorded from deciduous trees. The greatest numbers of fungal species were found on spruce (68), aspen (46), birch (31), and pine (25). Specimens are kept in the herbarium of the Karelian Research Centre (PTZ). The information obtained can be used to substantiate the planned protected area and serves as the background for further mycological studies.

Transcriptomic Analysis Reveals Dysregulation of the Mycobiome and Archaeome and Distinct Oncogenic Characteristics according to Subtype and Gender in Papillary Thyroid Carcinoma.

Papillary Thyroid Carcinoma (PTC) is characterized by unique tumor morphology, treatment response, and patient outcomes according to subtype and gender. While previous studies have implicated the intratumor bacterial microbiome in the incidence and progression of PTC, few studies have investigated the potential role of fungal and archaeal species in oncogenesis. In this study, we aimed to characterize the intratumor mycobiome and archaeometry in PTC with respect to its three primary subtypes: Classical (CPTC), Follicular Variant (FVPTC), and Tall Cell (TCPTC), and also with respect to gender. RNA-sequencing data were downloaded from The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA), including 453 primary tumor tissue samples and 54 adjacent solid tissue normal samples. The PathoScope 2.0 framework was used to extract fungal and archaeal microbial read counts from raw RNA-sequencing data. Overall, we found that the intratumor mycobiome and archaeometry share significant similarities in CPTC, FVPTC, and TCPTC, although most dysregulated species in CPTC are underabundant compared to normal. Furthermore, differences between the mycobiome and archaeometry were more significant between males and females, with a disproportionate number of fungal species overabundant in female tumor samples. Additionally, the expression of oncogenic PTC pathways was distinct across CPTC, FVPTC, and TCPTC, indicating that these microbes may uniquely contribute to PTC pathogenesis in each subtype. Furthermore, differences in the expression of these pathways were observed between males and females. Finally, we found a specific panel of fungi to be dysregulated in BRAF V600E-positive tumors. This study demonstrates the potential importance of microbial species to PTC incidence and oncogenesis.

Application of the Biolog EcoPlate™ technique for assessing the microbial metabolic diversity in moss profiles of continental Antarctica

Little is known about metabolic capabilities of microbial assemblages in continental Antarctic to utilize diverse carbon sources within moss profiles consisting of live, senescent, and dead moss tissues in different stages of decomposition. In the present study, microbial metabolic diversity was determined using Biolog EcoPlate™ for samples of Bryum pseudotriquetrum/B. archangelicum complex collected at five sites located in coastal outcrops of the Lützow-Holm Bay area (Queen Maud Land), East continental Antarctica, and effects of chemical, biological, and physical properties of the moss tissues were explored. The average well-color development, the number of substrates utilized, Simpson's diversity index and equitability of the microbial substrate utilization, and the utilization of carbohydrates, amino acids/amines, carboxylic acids, and polymers varied significantly among the five sites and among four layers of moss profiles. Principal component analysis showed that the utilization of L-asparagine, L-arginine, D-galacturonic acid, Tween 40, Tween 80, and D-mannitol mainly contributed to the variance in the microbial metabolic diversity between sites and moss profiles. The linear mixed models indicated that the relative content of recalcitrant organic components, the number of fungal species, and the water content of moss tissues affected the diversity of microbial utilization of carbon sources.

A Comparative Study on Fungal Diversity in Organic and Conventionally Cultivated Lemons During Accelerated Storage.

There has been a growing interest in organic farming as a countermeasure to the environmental burden caused by chemical pesticides. We analyzed and compared the fungal diversity of lemon fruits from organic and conventional cultivation by automated rRNA intergenic spacer analysis (ARISA), accompanied by isolation of cultured colonies and metagenomic analysis. Lemon peels were cut out and subjected to the analyses at purchase and after accelerated storage at 28°C. The organic lemons did not decay even after 14weeks, while most of the conventional lemons did decay. The fungal colony counts were not significantly different, although the number of fungal species together with the Shannon index, considering the abundance of each species, clearly showed more diversity in organic lemons than in conventional lemons (p = 0.011). Fusarium sp. (putative F. solani) accounted for as much as 90% of the relative abundance in the decayed conventional lemons. Metagenomic analysis also supported the lack of fungal diversity in conventional lemons. These results may suggest that organic cultivation maintains the diversity of native fungal flora in lemon fruit and could contribute to preventing decay during ambient storage.

Environmental drivers shaping the macrofungal sporocarp community in Mediterranean Quercus ilex stands

Holm oak is one of the most abundant tree-forming species in the Mediterranean area, hosting a great number of fungal species that are fundamental for the functioning of these forest ecosystems. However, the information about the fungal communities growing in Quercus ilex stands and the environmental drivers shaping their fruiting patterns is still scarce. This study aimed to characterize the productivity, diversity, and community composition of macrofungal sporocarps growing in Mediterranean Quercus ilex stands as shaped by key environmental drivers including meteorological and soil variables. We analysed a data set obtained from the autumn weekly sampling of all macrofungal sporocarps from 8 permanent plots over 13 consecutive years, and related weather and soil variables. We built up several linear mixed-effects models to describe productivity and richness changes over time, in addition to multivariate analyses aiming to describe the community composition variations. We identified 241 macrofungal species that were predominantly ectomycorrhizal, with Russulaceae and Cortinariaceae being the most abundant families. Agaricaceae and Tricholomataceae were the most abundant families of saprotrophic fungi. In addition, soil properties such as pH, organic matter and sand content played a significant role in sporocarp community composition. Our results highlight different drivers shaping different fungal fruiting processes, i.e., weather variables drive sporocarp productivity and sporocarp richness while soil characteristics may have a stronger influence on the aboveground fungal community composition. This study illustrates the high stochasticity of sporocarp occurrence and productivity, with species exhibiting higher values whenever the meteorological conditions were suitable for fungal fruiting.

ISOLATION AND MORPHOLOGICAL IDENTIFICATION OF FUNGI FROM DETERIORATING MONUMENTS OF MADHYA PRADESH, INDIA

Fungi are the most commonly occurring microbes found on the surfaces of stone. They have very simple nutritionalrequirements and can absorb organic compounds from the environment. Fungal hyphae penetrate surfaces and growinside the soil. This investigation was carried out in order to determine the diverse community of fungi growing on thesedeteriorating monuments. For this study, 55 samples of stone were collected from 10 ancient sites which weredeteriorating. The samples were collected by use of scalpels, brushes, tweezers and stored in UV sterilised poly bags.The isolation was done by using dilution plate method, plating technique and moist chamber method. During this study,a number of fungal species were isolated. These mixed colonies were then purified from the isolation plates andseparately incubated at 28±2°C. For this, selective media SDA (Sabouraud Dextrose Agar) was used. In order to preventcontamination from bacterial colonies, Chloramphenicol was added. After isolation, identification was done. For themicroscopic examination of fungi compound light microscope was used. Tease mount method was employed to observethe septation, conidia or spores. For the preparation of mount Lactophenol Cotton Blue was used. Twenty- One fungalspecies were isolated from 17 genera which are accounted in this study. The most frequently occurring fungal species areAlternaria sp, A. nidulans, A. fumigatus, A. flavus, A. terreus, A. niger, Bipolaris sp., Curvularia sp., Cladosporium sp., Chaetomiumsp., Chrysosporium sp., Exserohilum sp., Fusarium sp., Penicillium sp. , Phoma sp., Poecilomyces sp., Talaromyces sp., Trichoderma sp.,Torula sp., Ulocladium sp. and Verticillium sp. From the selected sites, there were few sites like Raisen Fort Raisen,Rajwada Palace Indore, Bhimbetka caves Raisen, Islamnagar Fort Bhopal and Bir Singh Palace Datia showed themaximum number of fungal species. These were followed by Shaukat Mahal Bhopal, Sadar Manzil Bhopal, Siddhawatghat Ujjain, Bharthari Caves Ujjain and Gohar Mahal Bhopal. From these sites, areas showing fungal abundance werechosen for the collection of samples. The bio-corrosion caused by these isolates will help to evaluate the damage causedand their extent of involvement. The data and results brought about from this study will help for future researches andanalysis. Moreover, this study determines the vast fungal diversity found on the deteriorating surface of the monumentsof Madhya Pradesh. This study will further help in implementing the preventive measures for the conservation ofheritage monuments.

The Effect of Frankia and Hebeloma crustiliniforme on Alnus alnobetula subsp. Crispa Growing in Saline Soil.

The mining of the oil sands region of Canada’s boreal forest creates disturbed land with elevated levels of salts. Understanding how native plants respond to salt stress is critical in reclaiming these lands. The native species, Alnus alnobetula subsp. crispa forms nitrogen-fixing nodules with Frankia, and ectomycorrhizae with a number of fungal species. These relationships may make the plant particularly well suited for restoring disturbed land. We inoculated A. alnobetula subsp. crispa with Frankia and Hebeloma crustiliniforme and exposed the plants to 0, 50, or 100 mM NaCl for seven weeks. Frankia-inoculated plants had increased biomass regardless of salt exposure, even though salt exposure reduced nitrogen fixation and reduced the efficiency of nitrogen-fixing nodules. The nitrogen-fixing symbiosis also decreased leaf stress and increased root phosphatase levels. This suggests that N-fixing plants not only have increased nitrogen nutrition but also have increased access to soil phosphorus. Mycorrhizae did not affect plant growth but did reduce nodule numbers and nodule efficiency. These results suggest that the nitrogen-fixing trait is more critical than mycorrhizae. While salt stress inhibits nitrogen-fixing symbiosis, plants still benefit from nitrogen fixation when exposed to salt.