Number Of Ants Research Articles

Reducing ACO Population Size to Increase Computational Speed

Ant Colony Optimization (ACO) is a powerful metaheuristic algorithm widely used to solve complex optimization problems in production and logistics. This paper presents a methodology for enhancing the ACO performance when applied to Traveling Salesman Problems (TSP). By reducing the number of ants in the colony, the algorithm's computational speed improves but solution quality is sacrificed. An optimal number of ants to produce the best results in the shortest time is specific to the problem at hand and can't be defined generally. This paper investigates the effect of ant population reduction relative to the problem size by measuring its impact on solution quality and execution time. Results show that for certain problem sizes ant population and execution time can be halved with practically no reduction in solution quality, or they can be reduced 5 times at the price of slightly worse solution quality. Reduction of ant population is much more impactful on reduction of execution time than it is on solution quality.

Common Home Remedies Do Not Deter Argentine Ants, Linepithema humile (Hymenoptera: Formicidae), from a Preferred Harborage.

In two laboratory trials, natural products, including freshly picked leaves from spearmint, rosemary, and tansy plants, a water extract from soybean plants, peels from a common cucumber, and 1% peppermint oil in hexane, were placed in a moist harborage preferred by Argentine ants, Linepithema humile (Mayr), and the number of ants entering the harborage after two and four hours was counted. None of the recommended home remedies (tansy, cucumber, or soybean extract) deterred ants from an attractive, moist harborage in either trial, even when the quantity of these treatments was increased 4- to 10-fold. Freshly picked leaves from rosemary and spearmint plants deterred ants from harboring, and the 1% peppermint oil was the most deterrent of all treatments.

A New Perspective to Oncopodura (Collembola: Oncopoduridae) Groups Based on Appendicular Morphology.

Oncopodura are rare basal springtails often associated with caves; only O. hyleana and O. itatiaiensis are known to Brazil. Oncopodura specimens from CRFS-UEPB were analyzed. Four new species are described: O. aurea sp. n., O. bauxita sp. n., O. hematita sp. n., and O. turmalina sp. n. The coded description of Symphypleona is adapted to Arthropleona, and 96 morphological characters are listed. Data of habitat and distribution of the new species is presented. A key of Brazilian Oncopodura is provided. Oncopodura groups are analyzed with main morphological characters for the groups classification. The crassicornis group is paraphyletic, tricuspidata group is monophyletic, and cruciata group compounds a new group out tricuspidata, with uncertain classification. The main characters that support crassicornis are the presence of unguiculus basal tubercle, external pretarsal chaeta larger than internal, absence of lateral lamella on unguis and PAO often with 6 + 6 or more lobules; tricuspidata is supported by basal tubercle often absent, pretarsal chaetae with similar length (usually both small), presence of lateral lamella on unguis and PAO often with less than 4 + 4 lobules; cruciata group is supported by absence of lateral lamella on unguis and PAO with less than 4 + 4 lobules and pretarsal chaetae usually with same length, both large. The characters like number of PAO lobes and shape, number of Ant IV transversal sens, and shape of hooks of the dens apparently are adaptive, presenting variations in the species. All the newly described species have reduced abundance and are distributed along two of Brazilian major mining areas, and are subject of habitat loss and degradation.

Improved ant colony optimization algorithm based on islands type for mobile robot path planning

According to the characteristics of ant colony optimization (ACO) algorithm in mobile robot path planning, such as local optimal solution, slow convergence speed, low search efficiency, and propensity to produce numerous deadlock ants, an improved ACO algorithm based on island type (insular ACO (INACO)) is introduced. In this algorithm, firstly, several islands are established between the starting and the ending position of environment, serving as intermediate nodes for the paths searched by the ants. This greatly reduces the number of deadlock ants. Additionally, rectangular areas are initialized with non-uniform pheromone levels between adjacent islands, while other areas are set to a constant minimum pheromone value. This prevents blind searches during the initial stages of path planning. Furthermore, an adaptive volatilization coefficient is introduced into the global pheromone update rules to balance the convergence and global search ability. Finally, optimal parameter combinations of INACO are determined by simulation. INACO algorithm is simulated in various grid maps and compared with other improved ACO algorithms. Results demonstrate its superior global optimal search capability and rapid convergence speed. The average iterative times is 2.7 in a 20 × 20 grid environment and 4.7 in a 30 × 30 grid environment. Notably, INACO produces very few lost ants, with mean values of 50.1 and 95.2 in 20 × 20 and 30 × 30 grid environments, respectively.

Grabbing Path Extraction of Deep-Sea Manganese Nodules Based on Improved YOLOv5

In an effort to enhance the efficiency and accuracy of deep-sea manganese nodule grasping behavior by a manipulator, a novel approach employing an improved YOLOv5 algorithm is proposed for the extraction of the shortest paths to manganese nodules targeted by the manipulator. The loss function of YOLOv5s has been improved by integrating a dual loss function that combines IoU and NWD, resulting in better accuracy for loss calculations across different target sizes. Additionally, substituting the initial C3 module in the network backbone with a C2f module is intended to improve the flow of gradient information while reducing computational demands. Once the geometric center of the manganese nodules is identified with the improved YOLOv5 algorithm, the next step involves planning the most efficient route for the manipulator to pick up the nodules using an upgraded elite strategy ant colony algorithm. Enhancements to the ACO algorithm consist of implementing an elite strategy and progressively decreasing the number of ants in each round. This method reduces both the number of iterations and the time required for each iteration, while also preventing the occurrence of local optimal solutions. The experimental findings indicate that the improved YOLOv5s detection algorithm boosts detection accuracy by 2.3%. Furthermore, when there are fewer than 30 target planning points, the improved algorithm requires, on average, 24% fewer iterations than the ACO algorithm to determine the shortest path. Additionally, the speed of calculation for each iteration is quicker while still providing the optimal solution.

Nest Biota and Composition of Household Ants in Lafia Local Government Area, Nasarawa State

Household ants are an important group of insect pests because of their close association with man. However, there is less data on their role in the mechanical spread of diseases in the study area. Therefore, this study investigated ant species and the soil microbes in their nest in Lafia Local Government Area of Nasarawa State, Nigeria in August, 2023. A cross-sectional study was carried out in 60 households across three developmental areas using hand-picking methods for ants’ collection as well as soil samples collection from available nests which were transferred in sample containers and transported to the laboratory for ants’ identification, parasitological analysis and culture. 3,015 ants belonging to five subfamilies, 15 genera and 17 species were collected. The most dominant ant was Brachyponera sennaarensis (21.43%), while Solenopsis spp. was least dominant (0.23%). Of the selected ants screened, none had ecto and endo-parasites. Although three (3) species of soil transmitted helminths were found in the soil analyzed using sedimentation method and the modified Baermann’s funnel technique in which Strongyloides starcoralis 16(26.67%) was more prevalent. Ants were also contaminated with (13) species of bacteria of which Escherichia coli was the most frequent (22.63%) pathogenic bacteria. Candida spp. was also recorded in the study. Consequently, Households in the study sites show increasingly high number of ants due to their efficient feeding and nesting activities; this may support the mechanical spread of helminths and soil pathogenic microbes, therefore proper sanitation as well as integrated control measures against ant infestation should be given due consideration.

Optimization of the Colony Size Parameter in the Ant Algorithm for Solving the Routing Problem in Communication Networks

With the increasing amount of information and complexity of communication networks, the issue of routing remains relevant. The routing problem is a classic problem of building a logical structure of a communication network. To solve this problem, many methods are used, such as: genetic algorithms, ant algorithm, swarm intelligence, artificial bee colony algorithm, firefly algorithm, bacterial food search optimization algorithm, etc. Despite the fact that the effectiveness of using the ant algorithm is widely known and described, however, there is no single approach to finding the optimal use case for the algorithm. There is a need to determine the optimal size of the colony when solving the routing problem. The article describes the results of the simulation process of modeling the behavior of ant colonies of different sizes to find the optimal route through the AnyLogic environment. It is determined that by means of simulation it is possible to reproduce the use of the ant algorithm to solve the routing problem in communication networks. To find the optimal ratio of the colony size to the complexity of the task, you can use the grid search methodology. The results clearly demonstrate that with increasing complexity of the task (the number of communication nodes), the same number of ants cope worse with the task. The problem associated with the need to accurately determine the optimal size of a colony is of great practical importance, because an increase in the size of a colony has generally decreasing utility. It was found that for many, an increase in the number of ants from 100 to 500 had a relatively greater effect than an increase in the size of the colony from 1000 to 10000. It is proved that by means of simulation it is possible to reproduce the use of the ant algorithm to solve the routing problem in communication networks.

Behavioural changes in the city: The common black garden ant defends aphids more aggressively in urban environments.

Urbanisation alters biodiversity patterns and threatens to disrupt mutualistic interactions. Aside from pollination, however, little is known about how mutualisms change in cities. Our study aimed to assess how urbanisation affects the protective mutualism between ants and aphids, investigating potential behavioural changes in mutualistic ants and their implications for aphids in urban environments. To do so, we studied the protective mutualism between the pink tansy aphid (Metopeurum fuscoviride) and the black garden ant (Lasius niger) along an urbanisation gradient in Berlin, Germany. In nine locations along this gradient, we measured aphid colony dynamics and proxies for parasitism, quantified the investment of ants in tending aphids and conducted behavioural assays to test the aggressiveness of ant responses to a simulated attack on the aphids. We found that aphid colonies flourished and were equally tended by ants across the urbanisation gradient, with a consistent positive density dependence between aphid and ant numbers. However, ants from more urbanised sites responded more aggressively to the simulated attack. Our findings suggest that this protective mutualism is not only maintained in the city, but that ants might even rely more on it and defend it more aggressively, as other food resources may become scarce and more unpredictable with urbanisation. We thereby provide unique insights into this type of mutualism in the city, further diversifying the growing body of work on mutualisms across urbanisation gradients.

Investigation the Potential of Myopopone castanea Smith (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) as Bio-Agent of Oryctes rhinoceros (Coleoptera: Scarabaediae) in Oil Palm Plantations

The Myopopone castanea Smith (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) is a predator of Oryctes rhinoceros Linn larvae, the main pest on oil palm plantations. These predatory ants have potential as biological agents because they have similar niches to their prey. This research aimed to explore the presence and potential of M. castanea as bio-agents in oil palm plantations and obtain knowledge about the abiotic environment of Myopopone castanea ant nests. The research was conducted in oil palm plantations owned by PTPN 4 Adolina, PTPN 2 Pagar Merbau, and smallholder oil palm plantations in Binjai, North Sumatra Province. Sampling was conducted using the purposive sampling method and as many as 10 sample points in each plantation. The results showed that the average temperature and humidity in the ant nests were 29.4 °C and 70.5%, respectively. The number of individual ants in a colony varied greatly in number and developmental stages. The predation potential of Myopopone castanea ants in the field reached 50.3% for five days of exposure in smallholder plantations and 46,9% in Adolina Plantation. This research could be the opportunity to use Myopopone castanea ants as a biological control for larvae Oryctes rhinoceros in oil palm plantations.

Susceptibility of flexible plastic foodstuffs packaging against Monomorium indicum (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) household ants.

Ants belonging to the Monomorium indicum (Formicidae: Hymenoptera) species are ubiquitous insects that are commonly associated with household settings in Pakistan. Packaged foodstuffs are easily destroyed by household ants when packaging is made with materials that have a high susceptibility. This study evaluated the susceptibility of three common flexible plastic packaging materials namely: opaque polyethylene, transparent polyethylene and polypropylene, which were each tested at thicknesses of 0.02 mm for their susceptibility against M. indicum. Except opaque polyethylene which is only available at 0.02 mm thickness, both transparent polyethylene and polypropylene were tested at higher thickness of 0.04 mm and 0.06 mm also against M. indicum. In order to simulate household settings, experiments were conducted at the faculty building of the agriculture and environment department of The Islamia University of Bahawalpur, Pakistan during summer vacations when the building was quiet. Different corners were selected near water sources for maximum exposure to the largest number of ants. Experimental cages used for the experiment were built with wood and 2 mm iron gauze to allow only ants to enter the cages. Daily activity of ants was used as an infestation source in cages. Experiments were run over three time spans of fifteen days each from June 20th 2022 to August 15th 2022. Results showed all packaging materials were susceptible against M. indicum at the 0.02 mm thickness level. Polypropylene was susceptible at 0.04 mm thickness but resistant to ants at 0.06 mm thickness, whereas polyethylene was still susceptible to ants at the higher thickness of 0.06 mm. Correlation of packaging damage with weather factors showed that temperature had a positive relationship, while relative humidity had a negative association with M. indicum attack. Overall correlation of packaging damage with packaging thickness showed packaging thickness was negatively associated with packaging damage from the ants. Because major cutting role is performed by the mandibles, we studied mandibles of ants and three frequent pests of packaged foodstuff namely Rhyzopertha dominica, Tribolium castaneum and Trogoderma granarium. The results showed that ants had the largest mandible and frontal mandibular tooth lengths compared with the mandibles and frontal teeth of the common stored product pests, indicating M. indicum household ants have a higher pest status for packaged foodstuffs compared to common stored product pests. Although the thickness of the flexible plastic packaging was a major factor against household ants, the study results recommend the use of polypropylene with a thickness of at least 0.06 mm as foodstuff packaging against household ants compared with polyethylene packaging, which was found to be susceptible to ants even at 0.06 mm thickness.

Temporal Variability in Weaver Ant Oecophylla longinoda Latreille (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) Nest Characteristics in Selected Host Plants

Weaver ants (Oecophylla smaragdina and O. longinoda) are famous for their impressive nest constructions where they weave together living leaves on their host plants. Also, they are known to protect tropical tree crops against insect pests and are thus being utilized for biological control. To optimize their use, nest numbers have been used to track weaver ant abundances in plantation, assuming the number of nests reflects ant numbers. In this study we compared nest size, the density of ants and the proportion of workers in nests between three host plants (cashew, citrus and mango) and between two seasons (rainy and dry). Nest size, ant density and worker proportion all differed between host species, whereas only nest size and worker proportion showed seasonal differences and only on mango and citrus, respectively. On hosts with smaller nests (in increasing size order: cashew, citrus mango), ant densities in the nests were higher, and the proportion of workers in the nests seemed to increase during seasons where food production on host trees decreased, or on hosts where more trophobionts were cultured inside nests. These results have implications for the development of methods used to estimate ant numbers and they raise interesting questions about the function of weaver ant nests.

Group Dynamics in Memory-Enhanced Ant Colonies: The Influence of Colony Division on a Maze Navigation Problem

This paper introduces an agent-based model grounded in the ACO algorithm to investigate the impact of partitioning ant colonies on algorithmic performance. The exploration focuses on understanding the roles of group size and number within a multi-objective optimization context. The model consists of a colony of memory-enhanced ants (ME-ANTS) which, starting from a given position, must collaboratively discover the optimal path to the exit point within a grid network. The colony can be divided into groups of different sizes and its objectives are maximizing the number of ants that exit the grid while minimizing path costs. Three distinct analyses were conducted: an overall analysis assessing colony performance across different-sized groups, a group analysis examining the performance of each partitioned group, and a pheromone distribution analysis discerning correlations between temporal pheromone distribution and ant navigation. From the results, a dynamic correlation emerged between the degree of colony partitioning and solution quality within the ACO algorithm framework.

The effects of camponotus japonicus ant on container-grown leguminous plants

Ants play a major role in changing the microscopic ecosystem. They constitute a significant part of the animal biomass and also act as soil engineers in soil ecosystems. The existence of ant colonies does affect the growth of surrounding plants and the living environment of other animals. This paper explores the impact of ants on the growth of leguminous plants. By placing C. japonicus individuals in an artificial environment, the nesting behavior and hunting behavior of ants could affect the environment in which legumes grow are maximized. The nesting behavior of ants causes seeds to sink into the soil, thereby slowing down the germination time of plants. Besides, the results suggested that the greater the number of ants, the greater their ability to influence the soil. At the same time, ants also produce more organic waste, accelerating the growth of legumes.

Modification of the Ant Colony Optimization Algorithm for Solving Multi-Agent Task Allocation Problem in Agricultural Application

This paper considers the problem of task allocation where the goal is to find a coalition of UAVs (agents) to complete on-farm agricultural tasks. In this study, Ant Colony Optimization (ACO) algorithm is employed to find the best coalition of agents. The performance of the basic ACO algorithm for solving task allocation is improved by modifying the efficiency factor. In the proposed algorithm, the efficiency factor is defined as a function that relates not only to the capability of the agents and the distance between the agents, but also to the distance between the agents and the target. To solve the task allocation problem, the capability list of the agents was also adjusted using common UAV capabilities in agricultural application. Simulation results showed that the proposed ACO algorithm with the modified efficiency factor improved the performance of basic ACO algorithm for solving task allocation problem in terms of the average total travel cost for each agent. The optimum number of ants and agents in the proposed algorithm was also analysed for robust performance. Simulation results revealed that the addition of the numbers of agents and ants increases the average efficiency of the algorithm. In this study, we have also added a function to calculate the system capability utilization. By employing such a function, simulation results show that the total resource used by the agents and total communication cost can be optimized. In addition, a simple experiment using five ground robots with a centralized control was also carried out as a proof of concept for the proposed algorithm.

Lipid Food Preference and Transportation Using Tools by an Indian Ant Species Monomorium pharaonis (Hymenoptera: Formicidae): A Field Study

Besides proteins and carbohydrates, the Pharaoh ant (Monomoroium pharaonis) prefers lipid foods especially when it becomes limiting in the colony. We used four different food-grade lipids such as mustard oil, sunflower oil, coconut oil and butter for seven consecutive days for a specified time frame (11.15 hr - 14.15 hr). There was a specific time zone in which the highest number of ants accumulated at all four food baits with varying peak values. Sunflower oil was the most preferred food, and mustard oil showed the lowest like. The differential number of ants in all four lipid food baits under observation can be attributed to the physical features and nutrient content. We also noted an interesting feature of the foraging activity: the major role of gathering and transporting food was performed primarily by two castes, intermediate and large, among the four distinct foraging castes. Most tools used in the present investigation were <0.5mm and of naturally available sand particles. They used the smallest tools more often as compared with the size of the other two categories. Our ant (M. pharaonis) transported only the butter-soaked smallest tools back to the nest. M. pharaonis used the smallest tools more often and this could be because the particular-sized tools were efficiently managed by the ant species under study. Our ants transported only the butter-soaked smallest tools back to the nest. It is revealed that butter was the most important lipid food for the particular ant colony of M. pharaonis.

Analysis of The Ant Number Effects on Ant Colony Optimization for Solving Russia-20-Nodes-SDVRP Instance

SDVRP is a variation of the CVRP that allows different vehicles to visit the same node. ACO performance is influenced by it’s parameter value. The number of ants parameter has a strong influence on ACO Performance, because it influences directly on solution quality and computation time. It is too hard to find the parameter value that can make ACO performance being the best performance. Because of this, what can be done is to test several parameter values, then compare the ACO performance of each parameter value. Russia-20-Nodes-SDVRP Instance is attractive to be solved because it’s number of nodes are not too many, only 20 nodes. Based on that number of nodes, the computation time of this instance is relatively fast and it has a lot of solution candidate. This research focus on the ant number effects on ACO for Solving Russia-20-Nodes-SDVRP Instance. Five ant numbers will be tested, they are 5, 10, 15, 20 and 25 ants, each ant number will be tested 10 times, so there will be 50 tests. These tests show that more ants used, greater possibility of getting a better route, but longer calculation time needed. The decrease in average of length of route is 1,1521% while the increase in average of calculation time is 42.5525%.

Ant Community Is Not Influenced by the Addition of Olive Mill Pomace Compost in Two Different Olive Crop Managements.

Industrial production of olive oil generates large amounts of solid waste called 'alperujo'. Its compost can fertilize many crops, especially olives. Furthermore, superintensive orchards are increasing their surface globally due to higher production and savings in different costs. Ants are considered an important part of the arthropod community in olive orchards and could even play a significant role in pest control. The tree canopy and ground were sampled to compare the ant assemblage in plots fertilized with compost and mineral products in two groves with different types of crop management (superintensive and traditional) over two years. The numbers of ants in both types of fertilization in each grove were not statistically different (p > 0.05), indicating that the type of fertilization did not have a significant impact on its populations in the ground or in the canopy, but the number of individuals was significantly higher in the superintensive grove than in the traditional grove (both in the ground and in the canopy, p < 0.01). The most frequent species in the ground were Pheidole pallidula, Plagiolepis smitzii and Aphaenogaster senilis (superintensive grove) and Pheidole pallidula, Tetramorium gr semilaeve, Plagiolepis pygmaea, and Tapinoma nigerrimum (traditional grove). In the canopy, the most frequent species were Plagiolepis spp. in both groves. Differences in ant densities and species between the groves could be due to the different management, especially of the soil, but it must be confirmed using more replicas and longer periods of study.

Pollination of Richea dracophylla (Ericaceae) and the role of the nocturnal ant Notoncus hickmani (Formicinae)

AbstractOur observation of large numbers of ants Notoncus hickmani (Formicinae) on the flowers of a Tasmanian endemic shrub Richea dracophyllum (Ericacea) during the night in winter prompted us to carry out a more extensive study of pollination of R. dracophyllum at two sites. Terminal panicles bear inflorescences of 300+ flowers whose petals are fused into calyptrae covering the reproductive organs, and the calyptrae must be removed before pollination can occur. To exclude birds, we placed mesh bags over some inflorescences. Inflorescences with exclusion bags had a high proportion of retained calyptra and the numbers of viable seeds were greatly reduced. We found R. dracophyllum to have a very long flowering period (more than 6 months) and a range of floral visitors, including honey‐eaters (Meliphagidae) and flying insects. At one site we observed large numbers (up to 100) of N. hickmani on inflorescences between dusk and midnight during winter at air temperatures down to 2.5°C. They fed on nectar from flowers that had lost their calyptra where they were exposed to pollen from the anthers and scanning electron microscopy showed high numbers of pollen grains being carried on the ants. The feeding behaviour of these ants would facilitate pollination between adjacent flowers (geitonogamy). Smaller numbers of dolichoderine ants (Iridomyrmex bicknelli?) were observed during the daytime in spring but mainly fed under partially detached calyptrae where they had little exposure to pollen. We suggest that R. dracophylla is pollinated by a range of species and functional groups—birds, flying insects and ants, and that the pollinating species will vary during the year and between sites, although insects depend on birds to remove the calyptrae. Ant pollination is rare, nocturnal ant pollination is extremely rare, and pollination by nocturnal cryophilic ants has not been documented previously.

Habitat Modification Alters Food Web Interactions with Focus on Biological Control of Aphids in Apple Orchards

To date, direct interactions between pests and natural enemies are often considered in biocontrol programs. Recently there has been an increase of evidence for the importance of third-party mediated indirect interactions in determining the population dynamics of insects. Predicting the strength of such interactions remains a central challenge in biocontrol assessments. Here, two field experiments were performed in two years to investigate to which extent Dysaphis plantaginea Passerini, Aphis pomi De Geer, and Myzus cerasi Fabricius might indirectly interact through shared natural enemies and ants. We first studied the population dynamics of target insects in isolated orchards of apples and cherries. Secondly, we investigated how the spatial coexistence of aphid-infested cherries can indirectly affect the population dynamics of apple aphids via natural enemies and ants. In the first experiment, nine parasitoid species were recorded on apple and cherry aphids, among them were three species in common. Six predatory families were found on cherry and apple aphids, while only one ant species, Lasius niger L., was found associating with these aphids. In the second experiment, temporal variation in the natural enemy-mediated apparent competition between M. cerasi and apple aphids was found. The cherry aphid is likely to be an important source of natural enemies that attack apple aphids early in the season. Significantly reduced numbers of ants associating with apple aphids in the intercropping habitat were found. Our results emphasize the importance of considering indirect interactions in the designing of pest management strategies.

A single-pheromone model accounts for empirical patterns of ant colony foraging previously modeled using two pheromones

In a 2009 paper, Dussutour et al. proposed that big headed ants (Pheidole megacephala) employ two attractant pheromones during foraging: one for exploration and another during food gathering. This claim was consistent with, and argued to be supported by, laboratory studies of ant exploration and food-gathering in a Y-maze apparatus. The authors measured foraging activity and colony foraging choice in terms of the number of ants choosing different branches over time, where experimental conditions modified the history of food availability at the end of each branch. They built a two-pheromone mathematical model to account for observed rates and proportions of ants traversing the left versus right branch. Here we show that the main reported experimental observations can be explained by a one-pheromone model. Our findings show that it is plausible, but unnecessary, to hypothesize that these ants employ two distinct pheromones in order to account for the two principal results of the Dussutour et al. study, and therefore, the study falls short of dispositive evidence for a two-pheromone model. More broadly, we highlight that patterns of animal behavior can be ambiguous with respect to sensory and cognitive mechanisms, hopefully motivating future modeling efforts that perform formal comparison across models with different structure.