Number Of Marine Protected Areas Research Articles

A new strategy for optimizing marine protection networks by considering functional connectivity: An example of Tachypleus tridentatus

The concept of creating a conservation network through the establishment of multiple protected areas to protect marine fauna is gaining momentum. To effectively establish a network that yields favorable outcomes, it is imperative to identify suitable areas that foster optimal connectivity. Given the swift development of coastal areas, it has become necessary to develop cost-effective measures that yield maximum conservation benefits. However, exploration of these ideas for application to marine conservation networks remains scarce. In this study, we used the horseshoe crab (Tachypleus tridentatus) in the Beibu Gulf as an example. The species and environmental data were collected through field sampling and remote sensing. The species distribution model, the least-cost path model, and circuit theory were employed to establish a marine conservation network. The functional connectivity metrics were employed to optimize both the interconnection and economic efficiency of the network. The results indicated a low presence of adult horseshoe crabs in the Beibu Gulf, with average densities of 1.47 and 1.43 ind./km2 among the 38 surveyed stations in 2018 and 2019, respectively. The species distribution model accurately predicted juvenile presence in mudflats and adult presence offshore, and it identified 43 potential areas that are suitable for the establishment of marine protected areas. The marine protected areas that ranked higher in importance contributed significantly to maintaining the integrity of regional connectivity. The network connectivity shows a law of diminishing returns as the number of marine protected areas increases. The framework developed in this study will provide decision support for building and optimizing marine conservation networks.

How Indonesian marine protected areas (MPAs) are doing: A management performance-based evaluation

According to the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) post-2020 global biodiversity framework, marine conservation activities aiming solely at area coverage are insufficient; thus, a persistent effort is required to establish effective marine protected areas (MPAs). Despite the fact that the number of MPAs has expanded dramatically over time, their management effectiveness still needs to improve, particularly in developing nations. Hence, this study was conducted to quantitatively and qualitatively assess the current state of Indonesian MPAs in meeting the Aichi targets. The government's investigative reports served as the foundation for the quantitative research, while a government-led interview-based survey conducted across 61 Indonesian locations served as the basis for the qualitative study. The findings showed that although the present Indonesian MPAs were at the stage of meeting the national target of 10 % coverage, it was anticipated that they would fall short of the new 30 % worldwide target by 2030. Although 61 % and 39 % of the research sites were managed at a minimal and optimal level, respectively, the evaluation of the management effectiveness of the MPAs in Indonesia indicates that none of the sites were sustainably managed. Lack of funding due to a need for infrastructure, facilities, and human resources was the main problem impeding management effectiveness. Based on the study's findings, it is recommended that the nation's biodiversity targets be designed to focus more on the development and oversight of the current MPA management and provide a perceptive policy response concerning the post-2020 global biodiversity framework.

Impact investment in marine conservation

Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) are promising examples of Nature-Based Solutions that can protect diversity while delivering ecosystem services. However insufficient funding for effective management and expansion of MPAs remains a challenge and one that particularly affects developing countries. During the last ten years, a community of investors seeking positive social and environmental impacts alongside financial returns, have stepped in to help fill this marine conservation financing gap. An innovative collaborative management approach has been recently implemented in the Dominican Republic for one of the largest MPAs in the Caribbean. Blended finance solutions mixing catalytic, development and impact finance have been used to cover the up-front capital needs. MPA revenues are being generated for MPA management and investor returns, via a range of sustainable finance tools including fees paid by visitors. The solution offers interesting outcomes that uses catalytic and development finance to mobilise commercial impact finance into MPAs. From a Government point of view, the approach provides empirical evidence of how non-public funding can become part of the financing options for a country’s MPA network, reducing the financial burden on Public Budgets. Scalability of the approach seems limited by the number of MPAs with tangible business models.

An integrated approach for the design of a marine protected area network applied to mainland Portugal

The high degree of marine habitat degradation and the depletion of marine resources has led to numerous calls and initiatives to increase the coverage of marine protected areas (MPAs). Currently, marine reserves (no-take areas) cover approximately 2.2% of the world's oceans whilst most calls and targets suggest protection levels should be between 20% and 30% in order to achieve both conservation and resource management objectives. In this study a systematic conservation planning framework was developed using ecological and socio-economic data. This framework was used to test different protection scenarios in Portugal. The current situation in mainland Portugal is alarming, with 0.2% of the waters under national jurisdiction included in MPAs and only 0.002% being marine reserves. Moreover, ecologically important habitats, such as seagrass beds and mäerl beds, have less than 10% of their area protected. The solutions provided by Marxan, and subsequently improved with MinPatch, revealed that there is a need to considerably increase the area under protection. However, adequate protection could be achieved with a number of MPAs (between 5 and 14) similar to the number of already existing MPAs (n = 8). Different stakeholders (artisanal fisheries, industrial fisheries, and other human uses such as oil and gas, and offshore aquaculture) were considered in different scenarios, with the results of the multivariate analysis indicating that there are several solutions that satisfy all stakeholders. Therefore, the results of this study are a valuable starting point for the ongoing implementation process of an MPA network in Portugal since they integrate the most important stakeholders whilst also taking in consideration the ecological aspects. This framework can be applied elsewhere and can be easily amended whenever new information is available.

A Synthesis of Opportunities for Applying the Telecoupling Framework to Marine Protected Areas

The world’s oceans face unprecedented anthropogenic threats in the globalized era that originate from all over the world, including climate change, global trade and transportation, and pollution. Marine protected areas (MPAs) serve important roles in conservation of marine biodiversity and ecosystem resilience, but their success is increasingly challenged in the face of such large-scale threats. Here, we illustrate the utility of adopting the interdisciplinary telecoupling framework to better understand effects that originate from distant places and cross MPA boundaries (e.g., polluted water circulation, anthropogenic noise transport, human and animal migration). We review evidence of distal processes affecting MPAs and the cutting-edge approaches currently used to investigate these processes. We then introduce the umbrella framework of telecoupling and explain how it can help address knowledge gaps that exist due to limitations of past approaches that are centered within individual disciplines. We then synthesize five examples from the recent telecoupling literature to explore how the telecoupling framework can be used for MPA research. These examples include the spatial subsidies approach, adapted social network analysis, telecoupled qualitative analysis, telecoupled supply chain analysis, and decision support tools for telecoupling. Our work highlights the potential for the telecoupling framework to better understand and address the mounting and interconnected socioeconomic and environmental sustainability challenges faced by the growing number of MPAs around the world.

A review of the biology, ecology, behavior and conservation status of the dusky grouper, Epinephelus marginatus (Lowe 1834)

The dusky grouper is a large-bodied marine species usually associated with rocky substrates and reefs currently experiencing increasing anthropogenic pressures. Here, we critically evaluate studies conducted during the last few decades on this endangered species, focusing on its biology, ecology, behavior, stock structure and fisheries, and identify future research directions to fill current knowledge gaps. This species plays an important functional role in the rocky bottom habitats in which it lives, usually occupying the highest trophic levels and with the potential role as a keystone species in some ecosystems. It has a complex life cycle characterized by a high longevity, a slow growth rate and a monandric protogynous hermaphroditic mode of reproduction. The species also exhibits spawning aggregation behavior, which makes it more vulnerable to fishing activity. Aside from its ecological importance, this species has high commercial value for professional fishers and is also highly prized by recreational spearfishers. These biological features, associated with increasing fishing pressures throughout most of its geographical distribution, have led to Epinephelus marginatus being included since 2004 in the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species as Endangered. Despite a large amount of research being conducted on this species over the last five decades or so, using a number of different tools and techniques, key questions regarding its biology still remain unanswered. In terms of conservation and management plans designed to safeguard this endangered species, we identified the crucial need to improve fisheries landing statistics for the species and to increase the number of marine protected areas within its distribution beyond the Mediterranean Sea.

Temporal assessment of the management effectiveness of reef environments: The role of marine protected areas in Brazil

Marine protected areas (MPAs) are being successful in the management of fishing resources and conservation of biodiversity in many parts of the world. The assessment of the management effectiveness provides examples to improve the management of these areas. Thus, this study assessed the management effectiveness of 11 MPAs with reef environments in the coast of Brazil, in the period of 10 years (2005, 2010, and 2015), through the method of Rapid Assessment and Priorization of Protected Area Management (RAPPAM). The questionnaire was also used to address the pressure (activities that affect the MPA in the last 5 years) and threats (activities that can potentially affect the MPA in the next 5 years. From the 11 MPAs assessed, the highest values of pressures and threats were obtained for two areas in the year of 2005 and four areas in 2015 (above 35%). The mean management effectiveness between 2005 and 2015 increased from 55.6% (±8.2) in 2005 to 60% (±11.5) in 2015. However, even with this increase, the mean effectiveness of some MPAs is still below the limit considered ideal for satisfactory management (<40%), and the number of MPAs with good management (>60%) has not changed over time.

Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) Special Feature: Editorial

The number of MPAs has increased sharply, from just 118 in 1970 to well over 6,300 today. This growth in numbers has also been accompanied by a voluminous growth in the academic literature on the theme, with writers employing ecologic, economic and governance lenses (or a combination thereof) to both support the case for MPA creation, and to evaluate just how successfully (or not) existing MPAs match up to their promises. Research suggests effective management of such protected areas is vital if desired outcomes are to be achieved within the allotted time period. This Special Feature on MPAs therefore seeks to address two key questions derived from the management effectiveness framework of Hockings and others (2000), namely: 'How appropriate are the management systems and processes in place?' and 'Were the desired Objectives achieved--and if so, why?' Fourteen articles, drawing on different disciplinary perspectives relating to MPA experiences from across the globe, offers insights into these questions by considering, inter alia, how: are MPA sites selected?; is 'buy-in' to the process from the various stakeholders achieved?; are these stakeholder's views reflected in the management systems that evolve?, and what monitoring and evaluation mechanisms are in place? Bringing these perspectives and approaches together through the medium of this Special Feature is thus intended to further our understanding of the different issues that may confront both planners and managers of Marine Protected Areas.

Socioeconomic Implications of Siting Marine Reserves in United States Waters

This paper describes how, in order to protect and restore fisheries in the United States, and to conserve biodiversity and cultural heritage sites (e.g., sunken ships), many natural scientists and environmentalists are promoting the use of marine protected areas (MPAs). Historically, very little U.S. waters are protected, but given the recent momentum in both the public and private arena for creating MPAs, it appears that there is social value in creating areas free from exploitation within the marine environment. However, important questions remain on the goals, uses, location, size and number of MPAs. In order to help shed light on the economic and social component of these questions, the paper discusses some expected benefits and costs associated with setting aside areas of the marine habitat in reserves where all resources are protected from extractive use (i.e., no-take zones). Before discussing the potential economic and social effects of marine reserves, the paper briefly discusses the science of marine reserves and the mechanisms that lead to the many stated benefits. Then the paper goes on to describe the institutional environment where marine reserves will be sited, because of its importance in determining the long-run effectiveness and the potential support the reserves will receive in the implementation process.

Perspectives on ecosystem-based approaches to the management of marine resources

Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) include many subclasses (e.g. marine sanctuaries, marine parks, wildlife refuges, fisheries closures, no-take MPAs, multiple-use MPAs, marine reserves, ecological reserves) all of which can be defined based mainly upon the level of protection and the primary conservation goal (see www.mpa.gov; Lubchenco et al. 2003). MPAs, and especially the marine reserves subclass (i.e. ‘areas of the ocean completely protected from all extractive and destructive activities’; Lubchenco et al. 2003) represent the extreme case of the precautionary approach to managing marine resources (e.g. Lauck et al. 1998). The strong and rapidly growing interest in MPAs (and particularly in marine reserves) is reflected in the dramatic increase in the number of publications devoted to them (reviewed in Jones 2002, Gell & Roberts 2003, and the articles in ‘The Science of Marine Reserves ’, a supplemental issue of Ecological Applications, Vol 13, Iss 1, freely available for download at www.esa-journals.org/esaonline/?request=getstatic&name=s1051-0761-013-01-0001). In addition, there are now a number of sites on the World Wide Web that are either totally devoted to MPAs, or include relevant information on them: UNEP’s World Conservation Monitoring Centre (www.unep-wcmc.org/ protected_areas), the Partnership for Interdisciplinary Studies of Coastal Oceans (PISCO, www. piscoweb.org), and several others. This intense interest is at least partly related to MPAs having been identified and advocated as a conservation (of habitat and biodiversity) and managerial (of fisheries) tool of central importance in the Ecosystem Approach to Fisheries (EAF) (e.g. Agardy 2000, Stergiou 2002, Halpern & Warner 2003, Lubchenko et al. 2003, Pauly & MacLean 2003, Hilborn et al. 2004). It is hoped that MPAs will be beneficial in (1) rebuilding overexploited fish stocks, (2) preserving habitat and biodiversity, (3) maintaining ecosystem structure, (4) buffering against the effects of environmental variability, (5) serving as a control group against which populations in exploited regions can be compared, among others. Clearly, the choice of location, spatial extent (horizontal and vertical), and number of MPAs is critical if they are to meet these goals. It is to this issue that we devote our attention here. Halpern & Warner (2003) state, ‘Most reserve locations and boundaries were drawn by a political process that focused on economics, logistics, or public acceptance, while largely overlooking or ignoring how the complex ecology and biology of an area might be affected by reserve protection.’ In this sense, establishing the locations and boundaries of MPAs can be seen as analogous to the imperfect process associated with establishing stock management grids—a process that has never really managed to incorporate the key realities of population dynamics of the exploited species. While there is a growing consensus on the need for MPAs, at this point in time there is no clear and well-founded basis upon which their location, spatial extent and number can be decided. In fact, rationales/frameworks that are based upon principles of theoretical and applied ecology have only recently been tapped to address these key questions (e.g. Roff & Evans 2002, Botsford et al. 2003, Roberts et al. 2003a,b, Shanks et al. 2003, Fisher & Frank 2004). Much of this work focuses on the manner in which different aspects of the life histories of marine organisms—spawning locations, dispersal, larval retention and export, juvenile nursery areas, etc.—affect MPA design. In this context, we contend that an ecoevolutionary framework already exists, grounded in marine ecology and fisheries oceanography, that is completely consistent with EAF and MPA objectives. The Member-Vagrant Hypothesis as a framework for defining the location, size and number of MPAs. The Member-Vagrant Hypothesis (MVH), the development of which can be traced through a series of publications by Mike Sinclair and Derek Iles (Iles & Sinclair 1982, Sinclair 1988, 1992, Sinclair & Iles 1988, 1989), defines 4 attributes of populations that are involved in the regulation of their size. The ’population richness’ refers to the number of discrete self-sustaining populations (henceforth simply ’populations’) exhibited by any given species. Species such as herring, cod, mackerel, the salmonids, and many others are population rich. The ‘spatial pattern’ relates to the geographic distribution of these populations. Population rich species are usually also broadly distributed (the north Atlantic region is so far the best studied in this regard). Population richness and spatial pattern are species-level characters. The ’absolute abundance’ refers to the instantaneous size of the various populations of any given species, and this size—which can range over several orders of magnitude—varies over time (thus, its ’temporal variability’). These last 2 components of the MVH are population-level characteristics. Sinclair & Iles have applied the MVH to describe the richness, pattern, abundance and variability of several economically im271