Number Of Golf Courses Research Articles

Exploring the Relation between Contextual Social Determinants of Health and COVID-19 Occurrence and Hospitalization

It is prudent to take a unified approach to exploring how contextual social determinants of health (SDoH) relate to COVID-19 occurrence and outcomes. Poor geographically represented data and a small number of contextual SDoH examined in most previous research studies have left a knowledge gap in the relationships between contextual SDoH and COVID-19 outcomes. In this study, we linked 199 contextual SDoH factors covering 11 domains of social and built environments with electronic health records (EHRs) from a large clinical research network (CRN) in the National Patient-Centered Clinical Research Network (PCORnet) to explore the relation between contextual SDoH and COVID-19 occurrence and hospitalization. We identified 15,890 COVID-19 patients and 63,560 matched non-COVID-19 patients in Florida between January 2020 and May 2021. We adopted a two-phase multiple linear regression approach modified from that in the exposome-wide association (ExWAS) study. After removing the highly correlated SDoH variables, 86 contextual SDoH variables were included in the data analysis. Adjusting for race, ethnicity, and comorbidities, we found six contextual SDoH variables (i.e., hospital available beds and utilization, percent of vacant property, number of golf courses, and percent of minority) related to the occurrence of COVID-19, and three variables (i.e., farmers market, low access, and religion) related to the hospitalization of COVID-19. To our best knowledge, this is the first study to explore the relationship between contextual SDoH and COVID-19 occurrence and hospitalization using EHRs in a major PCORnet CRN. As an exploratory study, the causal effect of SDoH on COVID-19 outcomes will be evaluated in future studies.

Morphological and Molecular Characterization of Prevalent Plant-Parasitic Nematodes from Turfgrasses in Guangdong, China

The turfgrass industry has undergone a rapid development in Guangdong province, China, which has the largest number of golf courses in the country. Recent surveys of turfgrasses in the province revealed five plant-parasitic nematodes that are prevalent: Helicotylenchus dihystera, Mesocriconema xenoplax, Meloidogyne graminis, Hemicriconemoides rosae and Tylenchorhynchus leviterminalis. The most prevalent species are M. xenoplax and M. graminis, found in 60.6% and 27.3% of locations, respectively. These five species are morphologically and morphometrically described. Molecular characterization and phylogenetic analyses using 18S rRNA and the D2-D3 expansion segments of 28S rRNA sequences are provided. This is the first report on molecular characterization and phylogenetic relationships of plant-parasitic nematodes associated with turfgrasses in Guangdong, China. This work was a first step for future study including pathogenicity assay, relationship examination with other pathogens and development of control measures of these turf nematodes to provide more precise and effective management options to turf superintendents.

Status of Pesticide Usage on Golf Courses in Korea and Optimal Pesticide Usage Plan

Risks to human health and the environment owing to pesticide usage have arisen interest, increasing the demand for reducing pesticide consumption used on golf courses. However, standard guidelines or manuals for reducing pesticide usage on golf courses in Korea are lacking. Herein, the trends of pesticides on golf courses were investigated, and the optimal pesticide usage plan was proposed for continuous pesticide reduction. In 2019, there were 539 golf courses in Korea. With the increasing number of golf courses in 2010–2019, pesticide usage increased continuously. Fungicides accounted for more than half the pesticides used, followed by insecticides and herbicides. Except for golf courses that do not employ chemical pesticides, pesticide usage per unit area varied in the range of 0.02–65.81 kg ha−1 (average of 6.97 kg ha−1). In the US, best management practices and integrated pest management (IPM) have been stipulated and are operational in each state for pesticide management in golf courses, recognizing chemical pesticide usage to be the last approach for pest control and turf health maintenance. Considering that Korea globally ranks 10th in the number of golf facilities and courses, the establishment of IPM practices suitable for domestic conditions is essential.

Impact of fate properties, groundwater fluctuations and the presence of worm burrows on pesticide leaching assessments through golf areas

The risk of pesticide leaching from recreational areas such as golf course turfs is not distinguished in a regulative framework within the EU where the focus is on agricultural soils. But with increasing popularity of golf, and thus, increasing number of golf courses leading to potentially increasing use of pesticides, understanding the processes determining pesticide leaching are critical to ensure optimal quality of both groundwater and golf turf. This study input the measured variation in fate properties of tebuconazole (TBZ) and MCPA as pure active ingredients and commercial products in simulations with realistic hydrological conceptualizations to investigate their implication in leaching assessments. Scenarios with (i) fluctuating and fixed groundwater levels and (ii) preferential flows including fluctuating and fixed groundwater levels were evaluated. The results showed that mobile MCPA leached in higher concentrations by a factor of 1.3 with fluctuating groundwater levels than with fixed groundwater levels. When preferential flow paths were incorporated in the models, the leaching was substantial for MCPA regardless of its formulation as active ingredient or commercial product, while in multiple simulations without preferential pathways there was no leaching of MCPA. Compared to MCPA leaching without preferential flow paths, the leaching concentrations increased up to a factor of 13.9 when preferential flows were included. With preferential flow paths, the increase in leaching concentration from fixed groundwater levels to fluctuating groundwater levels was up to a factor of 2.3 depending on the formulation of MCPA. This study demonstrated that it is imperative to assess fate parameters in the topsoil of golf courses and consider realistic groundwater BC (boundary condition) and the presence of preferential flow paths to obtain representative pesticide leaching risk assessments.

Can a golf course support biodiversity and ecosystem services? The landscape context matter

In the last 30 years, the number of golf courses has increased dramatically worldwide. Since no other sport occupies and manages such large areas of green space, landscape context is crucial for determining their impacts or benefits. (1) Examine how they affect the main landscape socio-environmental landscape components; (2) analyze the knowledge network structure characterizing the research focused on golf courses; (3) discuss the most common best management practices to mitigate their environmental impacts; and (4) suggest new research perspectives. This paper has reviewed 239 papers from academic library databases through a literature review and co-word network analysis. Golf courses have impacted negatively on water and soil components, while positively on biodiversity, ecosystem services, and tourism, mainly in urban contexts. The best management practices have focused on soil, biodiversity and ecosystem services, water quality and quantity, and have given specific indications for amphibians, birds, turtles, and bee species. Few articles have considered the landscape perspective, despite the potential impact on natural or semi-natural landscapes. New clusters of research and management issues, in order to link biodiversity conservation with landscape perspective, have emerged: the need to increase (1) studies focused on the effects of golf courses on the ecological processes behind the functioning of the landscape, taking into account its composition and spatial configuration; (2) the proportion of native vegetation in the landscape composition, and density and complexity of vegetation in the landscape configuration.

Testing the relationships among motivation, service quality, customer satisfaction and loyalty: A case of recreational golfers in south korea

Competition among golf courses in South Korea for recruiting and retaining customers has increased dramatically over the years as the number of golf courses grew. Therefore, it has become important for golf course managers to understand what attracts golfers to their golf courses. The purpose of this study was to examine the relationships among motivation, service quality, customer satisfaction, and loyalty among recreational golfers in South Korea. Total 563 recreational golfers participated in this study and responded to a self-administered survey measuring the constructs. The result showed that intrinsic motivation and extrinsic motivation were positively associated with service quality whereas amotivation was negatively related to service quality. In addition, golfers’ perceived service quality had a positive impact on golfers’ satisfaction and loyalty towards golf courses. These results suggest that golf course managers should understand the types and levels of motivation golfers have and develop strategies for enhancing service quality.

Golf, supply and demand

Macroeconomic conditions can have a substantial effect on the economic circumstances of individuals and therefore on the golf demand in a country. Using panel data on golf demand (number of golf players) and supply (number of courses), and indicators of the economic situation for 15 European countries, encompassing years 2000 through 2014, we estimate a dynamic panel data model in order to evaluate the influence of the economic conditions and golf supply on the number of registered golfers. Economic situation is assessed through two variables: the gross domestic product (GDP) and the main stock market index of each country. We also test the hypothesis of uneven effects of the GDP before and after the beginning of the economic recession. The most crucial finding is that from the start of the financial crisis, the level of GDP imposes statistically significant effect on golf demand, making those countries with higher GDP per capita the ones whose golf demand is harmed the least by the financial crisis. The number of golf players responds to the state of the economy after the start of the economic downturns, while the high persistence of the golf demand makes it rather difficult to find significant differences in the changes in GDP before the recession. We also find that the number of golf courses is not seen to bear a close relationship with the number of players unless we control for economic factors and business cycle. Within the economic factors, the level of development of a country, as measured by GDP per capita, outweighs stock market role in determining the demand for golf.

Current-use pesticides in urban watersheds and receiving waters of western Lake Ontario measured using polar organic chemical integrative samplers (POCIS)

Abstract Surface water contamination with current-use pesticides (CUPs) is usually associated with inputs from agriculture. However, there are several urban sources of these compounds, including pesticides used in public spaces, golf courses, and lawns and gardens; discharges of municipal wastewater containing fungicides from pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs); and runoff of biocides that are used in construction materials. Polar organic chemical integrative samplers (POCIS) were used to monitor the occurrence of fungicides and selected herbicides in surface waters in the densely populated urban area near Toronto, Canada. Samplers were deployed in five urban streams, one agriculturally dominated stream, and at five locations in the nearshore zone of western Lake Ontario adjacent to urban areas. Sampling rates for target compounds in POCIS determined in laboratory calibration experiments ranged between 0.03 and 0.65 L/day. For herbicides, atrazine was detected at all sites, and diuron, 2,4-D, and mecoprop were frequently detected. The fungicides carbendazim and thiophanate-methyl were detected at all sites, and a hydroxy-metabolite of the fungicide chlorothalonil was also widely detected. Fungicides used in PPCPs (e.g. fluconazole, climbazole) were primarily detected in POCIS deployed in locations impacted by municipal wastewater. Estimated time-weighted average (TWA) concentrations of iprodione and carbendazim in urban streams were consistent with the number of golf courses in the watershed. However, runoff of biocides from building materials may also be a source of these fungicides. Overall, these data indicate that urban environments, as indicated by the Toronto area, have several point and non-point sources of fungicides and other CUPs.

Documenting Trends in Nutrient Use and Conservation Practices on US Golf Courses

Between an initial survey in 2007 and a follow‐up in 2014, US golf courses have decreased their nutrient use, with annual reductions of 34% (30,970 tons) for N, 53% (17,867 tons) for P2O5, and 42% (37, 419 tons) for K2O (potash). Reductions in the number of fertilized acres, golf course closures, and reductions in nutrient use rates were responsible for the observed trends. There is dramatic, climate‐driven regional variation in nutrient use across the United States, with the lowest rates in the cool climates of the Northeast and North Central regions and the highest rates in the warm climates of the Southeast and Southwest regions. Future reductions in nutrient use on golf courses will be facilitated by continued adoption of conservation measures, adoption of lower nutrient use guidelines, additional governmental regulation, and cutbacks in the number of golf courses.

Fairway patch - a serious emerging disease of couch (syn. bermudagrass) [Cynodon dactylon] and kikuyu (Pennisetum clandestinum) turf in Australia caused by Phialocephala bamuru P.T.W. Wong & C. Dong sp. nov.

Since 2005, a serious emerging disease called fairway patch has occurred on the fairways, tees and green surrounds of a number of golf courses in New South Wales, Queensland, Victoria and Western Australia. It occurs most commonly on couch or bermudagrass (Cynodon dactylon) but has also been found on kikuyu (Pennisetum clandestinum) fairways at one golf course in Sydney. The disease begins as small patches (5–10 cm diam.) of yellow to tan-coloured grass. The patches enlarge into tan-coloured rings up to 1 m in diameter, which often coalesce to form unsightly brown networks of dead and dying grass. The patches are present all the year round but are most pronounced from late spring to late autumn. Fungal isolation from diseased roots and pathogenicity tests have proven that a slow-growing (ca. 2 mm/day on PDA at 25 °C), dark, septate, non-sporulating fungus is the cause of fairway patch. Phylogenetic analysis of the pathogen’s rDNA ITS and partial 28S sequences has shown that it is a new taxon and is described as Phialocephala bamuru P.T.W. Wong & C. Dong sp. nov. It belongs to a heterogeneous clade that includes Phialocephala, Acephala, Vibrissea, Phaeomollisia and Mollisia spp., but, as it is phylogenetically closest to Phialocephala spp. (94–95 % ITS affinities), it has been described as a Phialocephala species although it has not been shown to produce spores in culture. Research is continuing to study the biology and ecology of this ectotrophic root-infecting fungal pathogen and develop practical strategies to manage the disease.

Study on Environmental Issues of Golf Course Construction in China

The rapid development of Golf in China has brought not only illegal construction in the number of golf courses, but also a certain degree of environmental problems, which were questioned by the public and restricted by national policies. Based on the perspective of environmental protection,we study the consumption of water, a lot of land encroachment, destruction of the ecological environment and other issues in the construction of Golf course by using of literature, case studies and other research methods. we propose that the specific strategies on development Golf and protect environment combined with the importance of environmental protection. Development of golf is not simply the pursuit of increasing the number of golf courses, nor at the expense of the ecological environment at the cost of one-sided pursuit of economic, social neglect, but under the protection of the environment, the premise of sustainable use of resources, and take the road of sustainable development.

Potential pollution risk in natural environment of golf courses: an example from Rusovce (Slovakia)

The objective of the article presented herein is to highlight the specific issue of the protection of water sources in the vicinity of golf courses. Currently we have experienced the construction of a large number of golf courses, which are often found in areas where the protection of natural groundwater resources is needed. In this article, limit conditions are specified, which could be used in construction of other golf courses in the world, where there is a potential threat of contamination of groundwater resources. The issue is demonstrated on a case study in the area of a water resource, Rusovce. A major concern of golf courses is the fact that in an apparently clean environment of these anthropogenic structures contamination occurs, resulting from the maintenance, and the current legislation does not address this specific group of areas. These are particularly dangerous substances derived from fertilizer and turf protection, in particular the use of pesticides (insecticides, herbicides, fungicides, acaricides, e.g. nematocides, and related products, such as growth regulators used for plant protection). The results of the modelling at the water source, Rusovce, show that the combination of negative factors (for example, the groundwater table level close to the surface along with extremely high precipitation totals or the areas flooding and the lack of a golf course bedrock sealing) the limit value of 0.100 μg/l of pesticides concentration in groundwater was exceeded up to 0.880 μg/l. Similarly, such excess may occur in the case of an emergency situation (for example, the spilling of the barrel with the pesticide), where the concentration of pesticides in groundwater may be increased up to 0.874 μg/l in standard conditions (without flooding with an average depth of groundwater table level beneath the terrain). But even under a standard level of security for the establishment and operation of a golf course and standard procedures for the maintenance of the lawn, the concentration of pesticides in the wells reached 0.0001 μg/l.

Study on Environmental Crisis and Construction of Golf Course

The rapid development of golf sport in China, not only brought the illegal construction of the growing number of golf courses, also gave rise to a certain degree of environmental crisis, and questioned by the public regulation of national policy. Based on the perspective of environmental ethics, This paper analysis follow problems: construction of golf courses in the country appeared excessive consumption of water, occupying large areas of land, destruction of ecological environment and other issues of ethical by using literature, case studies and other research methods, and propose a concrete strategy of construction in environmental ethic through combining with environmental ethics properties and principles. In the present study, the author designed to call attention to the golf course environmental problems caused by construction, with a view to sustainable development and golf-related policy research to provide reference.

Of Golf, Capitalism, and Socialism: An Empirical Analysis

On July 13, 1977, Armen A. Alchian wrote the Wall Street Journal editorial “Of Golf, Capitalism, and Socialism.” The question Alchian posed was why golf is predominant in capitalist societies but not in socialist ones. Alchian explained that golf is not a sport alone but also a lifestyle, “a manifestation of the essential human spirit” (Alchian, Collected Works of Armen A. Alchian, 2006). Because golf’s rules and procedures require self-reliance and independence, it is a purely capitalistic sport. Alchian’s article suggests an interesting hypothesis: is golf, in fact, more prevalent in capitalist countries? Using cross-sectional data from 74 countries we examine the relationship between the number of golf courses in each country and their Economic Freedom of the World Index (EFW) ranking. Alchian argued that if golf were ever to emerge in communist ruled countries it would “surely be where the latent, but suppressed, capitalistic spirit is the strongest” (Alchian, Collected Works of Armen A. Alchian, 2006). He specifically noted the Czech Republic had seven courses prior to World War II and, therefore, it was not surprising that they were a “trouble-some people” (Alchian, Collected Works of Armen A. Alchian, 2006). Thus, we should not be surprised that the Czech Republic made such great economic transitions from the Soviet system. Gwartney and Lawson (Economic Freedom of the World: 2008 Annual Report, 2008) report prior to 1989 the Czech Republic had an estimated EFW ranking of 3 and an EFW ranking of 6.84, as of 2006 while Russia went from 3 to 5.91. The EFW data will determine if the former Soviet countries have experienced enough of a capitalist transition to see golf courses develop while controlling for GDP and population. Atl Econ J DOI 10.1007/s11293-011-9267-1

Unpacking the Postpolitics of Golf Course Provision in Singapore

The number of golf courses in the Southeast Asian city-state of Singapore has grown dramatically in the last few decades. The 1990s was particularly significant both in terms of the number of new courses that was built and the intensity of public opposition against these courses. This article outlines the politics between the opponents and proponents of golf courses based on two contrasting case studies. It highlights the predominant representations of golf courses promulgated by golf proponents and contrary images held by activists and the general public. Through analyzing newspaper reports and interviews with planners, golf course managers and activists, this article shows how the politics of golf course has become more consensual than confrontational since the 2000s. The reasons for this subtle shift are also explored. The article considers the extent to which such “consensual politics” is a conscious tactic used by planners and golf proponents to circumvent and manage dissent toward the construction of new golf courses.

Impact of a Golf Course on Nocturnal Katabatic Flow Within Gold Canyon, Arizona: A Case Study

ABSTRACT With an increasing number of golf courses within Gold Canyon, Arizona, located at the foot of the Superstition Mountains, this study determines if characteristics of nocturnal katabatic flow, with respect to temperature, dew point, wind speed and direction, were altered due to a golf course. To answer this question, I devised a four transect plan in which four weather stations measured temperature and dew point at three levels (0.70 m, 1.25 m and 2.5 m), along with wind speed at two levels (1.25 m and 2.5 m), as well as wind direction at 2.5 m. I positioned two stations above the golf course, considered natural stations, and two stations below the golf course, considered to be anthropogenically influenced stations. I then collected data over a six-night period starting at 1700 MST on January 3 and ending at 0945 MST on January 9. A golf course community appears to significantly modify katabatic flow. Using Analysis of Variance, coupled with Tukey's comparison test, at the 95 percentile confidence...

Estimating Watershed Level Nonagricultural Pesticide Use From Golf Courses Using Geospatial Methods1

Abstract: Limited information exists on pesticide use for nonagricultural purposes, making it difficult to estimate pesticide loadings from nonagricultural sources to surface water and to conduct environmental risk assessments. A method was developed to estimate the amount of pesticide use on recreational turf grasses, specifically golf course turf grasses, for watersheds located throughout the conterminous United States (U.S.). The approach estimates pesticide use: (1) based on the area of recreational turf grasses (used as a surrogate for turf associated with golf courses) within the watershed, which was derived from maps of land cover, and (2) from data on the location and average treatable area of golf courses. The area of golf course turf grasses determined from these two methods was used to calculate the percentage of each watershed planted in golf course turf grass (percent crop area, or PCA). Turf‐grass PCAs derived from the two methods were used with recommended application rates provided on pesticide labels to estimate total pesticide use on recreational turf within 1,606 watersheds associated with surface‐water sources of drinking water. These pesticide use estimates made from label rates and PCAs were compared to use estimates from industry sales data on the amount of each pesticide sold for use within the watershed. The PCAs derived from the land‐cover data had an average value of 0.4% of a watershed with minimum of 0.01% and a maximum of 9.8%, whereas the PCA values that are based on the number of golf courses in a watershed had an average of 0.3% of a watershed with a minimum of <0.01% and a maximum of 14.2%. Both the land‐cover method and the number of golf courses method produced similar PCA distributions, suggesting that either technique may be used to provide a PCA estimate for recreational turf. The average and maximum PCAs generally correlated to watershed size, with the highest PCAs estimated for small watersheds. Using watershed specific PCAs, combined with label rates, resulted in greater than two orders of magnitude over‐estimation of the pesticide use compared to estimates from sales data.

Environmental management of UK golf courses for biodiversity—attitudes and actions

The expansion in the number of golf courses over recent decades has seen increasing concern over their role in management of land and the impact they have on biodiversity. The aim of this study was to assess the attitudes of golf course managers to biodiversity and conservation, and to evaluate the role of these issues in site management. Managers of all of the golf courses in East Anglia, UK (200 in total) were surveyed using a postal questionnaire, with a 47% response rate. Seven managers took part in detailed structured interviews to explore issues emerging from the postal survey. Only 12% of courses had carried out a detailed baseline wildlife survey, although over 90% of course managers considered that golf courses were important for wildlife. Over 60% of course managers wanted more to be done to promote wildlife, but although elements of positive management were widespread, formal management planning only took place in 43% of the courses surveyed. Conflicts between management for wildlife and for golf were evident and interviews revealed that these conflicts often stem from the demands of club members. Provision of information for course managers, and communication with club members, were revealed as key issues for future improvement.

First Report of Pyricularia grisea Causing Gray Leaf Spot on Kikuyugrass (Pennisetum clandestinum) in the United States.

Kikuyugrass (Pennisetum clandestinum) is a warm-season turfgrass that has been adopted for use in fairways and roughs in a number of subtropical areas including southern California, Mexico, Australia, and South Africa. During August 2003, a foliar disease of Kikuyugrass was reported from a number of golf courses in southern California. Examination of diseased plants showed the presence of dark, olive green-to-brown lesions on the foliage. Incubation of these plants in a moist chamber for 12 h led to the production of numerous pyriform conidia from these lesions that were characteristic of Pyricularia grisea. Single-spore isolates of the fungus were obtained from infected kikuyugrass samples by transferring conidia to acidified 1.5% water agar and then transferring single, germinated conidia to one-quarter-strength potato dextrose agar. Colony morphology and conidia production were consistent with that described for P. grisea (1). Koch's postulates were performed separately for two single-spore isolates (OSGC-1 and CCCC-1) obtained from infected kikuyugrass. For each isolate, 2-week-old, glasshouse-grown seedlings of kikuyugrass (cv. 'AZ-1') and perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne) grown in 75-mm pots in soilless media were inoculated with conidia from either OSGC-1 or CCCC-1. For each test, six pots of both kikuyugrass and ryegrass were inoculated, and the tests were conducted three times for each isolate. Conidia were obtained from isolates grown on clarified V8 agar in 100-mm petri plates for 14 days at 25°C. Suspensions were made by adding 10 ml of sterile distilled H2O (sdH2O) to the plates, scraping the surface of the media to dislodge the conidia, filtering the suspension through cheesecloth, and then adjusting the final concentration to 1 × 106 conidia/ml with sdH2O. Seedlings were inoculated with the conidial suspensions with an aerosol applicator, placed in plastic boxes lined with wet paper towels, and sealed to provide adequate moisture for infection. Boxes were incubated at 28°C for 48 h after which time the covers were removed and the plants maintained in ambient glasshouse conditions at approximately 28°C. In all three replicated experiments, kikuyugrass seedlings inoculated with OSGC-1 or CCCC-1 developed symptoms of disease approximately 5 days after inoculation, while inoculated perennial ryegrass did not, even 14 days after inoculation. Symptomatic kikuyugrass leaves were taken randomly from plants from each of the three replicated tests, surface disinfested in 0.3% sodium hypochlorite for 30 s, rinsed with sdH2O, blotted dry, and placed onto acidified water agar in petri plates. Twenty-four hours later, abundant sporulation was observed from symptomatic tissue with conidiophores bearing conidia typical of P. grisea. To our knowledge, this is the first report of gray leaf spot being caused by P. grisea on Pennisetum clandestinum in North America. Reference: (1) M. B. Ellis. Dematiaceous Hyphomycetes. Commonwealth Mycological Institute, Kew, Surrey, UK, 1971.

日本のゴルフ場におけるツルスズメノカタビラの侵入実態

Annual bluegrass (Poa annua L.) is one of the most serious weeds in golf courses in Japan. Recently, anecdotal reports of unusual types of this species have been made. In order to determine the extent and importance of these plants, a survey was carried out in 2000 by sending a questionnaire to superintendents of golf courses across Japan. Two hundred and twelve responses were obtained. The most common characteristics observed in the unusual P. annua plants were year-round growth, followed by prostrate habit and difficulty in control. This indicated that they were mostly identified P. annua L. var. reptans Hausskn. The number of golf courses infested by this variety has apparently increased since 1993. It occurs in up to 60% of golf corses in southern Kanto district, while less in the area south of the Tokai district. The most probable route of invasion by this variety is assumed to be as a contaminant of imported commercial turfgrass seeds. From the early 1990's, inter-seeding of new bentgrass cultivars on bentgrass putting greens and/or over-seeding of cool season grasses in winter on Zoysia turf of fairways, tee-grounds and green-edges were increasingly applied, particularly in southern Kanto. Infestation of the weed seems to have coincided with these turf improvement procedures. Plants appeared predominantly in putting greens suggesting their high adaptability to intensive mowing and rolling. The risks of weed contamination in imported turfgrass seeds are discussed.