Different Number Of Syllables Research Articles

Linguistic problems of translating Indonesian popular lyrics of cover songs into English

Translation results can be influenced by linguistic aspects. The objective of this study is to investigate several kinds of linguistic problems in the translation of Indonesian popular lyrics’ cover-songs from Indonesian into English. This study applies descriptive qualitative research. This research uses the document to collect data. The document used is cover songs from several popular singers and bands such as Andmesh Kamaleng, Anneth, Budi Doremi, Nineball, and Christian Bautista. There are seven popular lyrics’ cover songs that have been analyzed. The result analysis shows that translation songs activities cannot be separated from linguistic problems as in morphological, syntactical, phonological, and semantic. Morphologically, the problem is in the difference of the grammatical system related to singular and plural nouns. In phonological, the problem is in the differences between Indonesian and English syllables. As a result, the differences cause a different pronunciation and produce a different number of syllables. Syntactically, the problem is in constructing sentence elements. In a sentence, both in Indonesian and English at least will need a subject and a predicate orderly. Semantically, the problem is related to the meaning contained in a word or sentence, but equivalence may occur in translating to achieve an adequate degree of equivalence. When translating a song, a translator must pay close attention to the many components that contribute to the creation of a full product song. These components include song lyrics or text, as well as musical elements like melody and rhythm. In its formulation, the song lyric is a language that is not isolated from the musical principles such as the song's rhythm, melody, and harmony. In song translation, the sense and facts of the source texts are often changed. Therefore, the translator is faced with a choice of whether or not to translate such a lyric.

Speech perception in quiet and in different types of noise in children with learning disability

Introduction: Studies suggest that children with learning disability (LD) have poor phonological representation. Furthermore, in individuals with LD, it has been reported that in spite of having normal intelligence, they have poor speech perception in quiet and in the presence of noise. As per the literature, there was no published report which highlights pattern perception in quiet and in the presence of different types of noise in children with LD. Thus, the present study aimed to assess pattern perception in quiet and in the presence of noise in typically developing children and in children with LD. Methods: A total of forty children including twenty typically developing children and twenty children with LD in the age range of 5–10 years were included in the study. Word identification scores were calculated in quiet and in the presence of different types of noise at 0 dB signal-to-noise ratio. The words used as stimuli contained a different number of syllables (monosyllable, bisyllables, and trisyllables). Results: Children with LD had poor performance in quiet, in the presence of speech babble, and speech noise compared to typically developing children. The response was best in quiet condition followed by in presence of noise (speech babble and speech noise). Compared across noise conditions, the responses obtained in the presence of speech noise did not differ significantly compared to response obtained in the presence of speech babble. Compared across syllables, trisyllables yielded the best result followed by bisyllables and the least perceived was monosyllables. Conclusion: The present study highlights the poor phonological processing of speech in children with LD and also represents the effect of noise on the speech perception. This study also highlights the poor pattern perception seen in children with LD.

Training nonnative speakers to attain English prosody

The current study examined the role of training in helping nonnative speakers to improve their correct production of primary stress. The study recruited 20 nonnative speakers of English who underwent theoretical and practical training and another 20 native listeners who evaluated the correctness of productions of nonnative speakers before and after training. The hypothesis of the study focused on that adequate training is effective in suprasegmental attainment in L2. Stimuli included 36 real English words; 12 words with different types of suffixes, 12 words with different number of syllables, and 12 words with different grammatical class (verbs vs. nouns). The results indicated total improvement of 19.83% in nonnative assignment of primary stress. The study concluded that prosodic elements are to be given a central importance in L2 teaching learning process concerning since they contribute to intelligibility which is an ultimate target that can be improved by means of good and sufficient training.

The evolution of birdsong on islands

Islands are simplified, isolated ecosystems, providing an ideal set-up to study evolution. Among several traits that are expected to change on islands, an interesting but poorly understood example concerns signals used in animal communication. Islands are typified by reduced species diversity, increased population density, and reduced mate competition, all of which could affect communication signals. We used birdsong to investigate whether there are systematic changes in communication signals on islands, by undertaking a broad comparison based on pairs of closely related island-mainland species across the globe. We studied song traits related to complexity (number of different syllables, frequency bandwidth), to vocal performance (syllable delivery rate, song duration), and also three particular song elements (rattles, buzzes, and trills) generally implicated in aggressive communication. We also investigated whether song complexity was related to the number of similar sympatric species. We found that island species were less likely to produce broadband and likely aggressive song elements (rattles and buzzes). By contrast, various aspects of song complexity and performance did not differ between island and mainland species. Species with fewer same-family sympatric species used wider frequency bandwidths, as predicted by the character release hypothesis, both on continents and on islands. Our study supports the hypothesis of a reduction in aggressive behavior on islands and suggests that discrimination against closely related species is an important factor influencing birdsong evolution.

Song characterization in the spectacled warbler (Sylvia conspicillata): a circum-Mediterranean species with a complex song structure

The spectacled warbler (Sylvia conspicillata) is a small passerine with a patchy distribution throughout the circum-Mediterranean region, including the North Atlantic archipelagos of Madeira, Canary Islands and Cape Verde. Here we characterize the species song structure on the island of Fuerteventura, quantifying repertoire size, inter- and intra-individual spectrographic variation, to determine whether acoustic variation occurred within an island population. Male song display was organized in song bouts of a variable number of song phrases, which in turn were made up of 4–69 syllables. We classified syllable types to derive a measure of repertoire size (number of different syllables) per song bout, and then used rarefaction methods to calculate the estimated repertoire size for our population of males. Three categories of song bout length were considered in analyses: short song bouts of 10 phrases, average bouts of 19 phrases and long bouts of ≥ 29 phrases. The observed and estimated repertoire size per male (between 43 and 126 syllables per male) increased with song bout duration, although the relationship was not significant for the estimated values. To test whether songs could be individually specific, we measured 11 spectrotemporal parameters of the song. A discriminant analysis using these variables performed poorly in classifying songs to the individuals that uttered them, but we found less variation in the individual than in the population for three out of the 11 variables. These individually specific variables, involving the first or the most common syllable of the song, the trill, were the duration of the first syllable of the phrase, the duration and the dominant frequency of the trill syllable. Our study emphasizes the complexity of spectacled warbler songs, in which males continuously add novel syllables over the entire song bout. This complexity appears to be determined by individual innovation capabilities rather than by the behaviour of copying neighbour repertoires, since songs of close birds were not more similar than songs from far-away territories.

Lermontov’s Borodino Strophe and Issues of Russian Verse Theory

The paper considers several issues of Russian Verse Theory connected with the architectonics of Lermontov’s Borodino strophe. This rare and unique strophe is characterized by an odd number of lines (seven), peculiar rhyme, and mainly by the different number of syllables in its lines: five lines of the strophe contain nine syllables of iambic tetrameter, while the third and the seventh contain six syllables of iambic trimeter. Such a structure does not allow the use of traditional (statistical) methods of the study of verse rhythmics. To prove that, this paper describes the construction of “stress profiles” for the quatrain in iambic tetrameter, and shows that it is impossible to carry out this procedure for Lermontov’s Borodino strophe. Unlike the traditional approach, our method of rhythmic-harmonic precision imposes no restrictions on the architectonics of verse, which is why it is this method that underlies the analysis of the structural harmony of the Borodino strophe given in this paper. Our analysis compares the rhythmic-harmonic potential of the strophe and the actual values of the rhythmic harmony parameter with iambic and trochaic quatrains and with Onegin’s strophe in Pushkin’s verse. Another task of our work was a rhythmic-conceptual study of the “Borodino” text. This poem was published in 1837; together with the poem “On the Poet’s Death,” it immediately moved Lermontov to the forefront of Russian poets. The main result of our work consists in proving that in its structural-harmonic aspect, the Borodino strophe is unique and, moreover, it turns out to be the perfect verse construction for the expression of a mixed sublime-descending poetic mood: inspiration (in our case, a patriotic rise) and the following disappointment. Our study shows that Lermontov’s great poem “Borodino” not only passes “the trial of harmony with algebra,” but also, from the point of view of its single a rhythm-sense, stands near the best works of the first Russian poet, Pushkin.

Behavioural and physiological effects of population density on domesticated Zebra Finches (Taeniopygia guttata) held in aviaries

Zebra Finches (Taeniopygia guttata) are highly social and monogamous birds that display relatively low levels of aggression and coordinate group life mainly by means of vocal communication. In the wild, small groups may congregate to larger flocks of up to 150–350 birds. Little is known, however, about possible effects of population density on development in captivity. Investigating density effects on physiology and behaviour might be helpful in identifying optimal group size, in order to optimise Zebra Finch wellbeing.A direct effect of population density on development and reproduction was found: birds in lower density conditions produced significantly more and larger (body mass, tarsus length) surviving offspring than birds in high density conditions. Furthermore, offspring in low density aviaries produced slightly longer song motifs and more different syllables than their tutors, whereas offspring in high density aviaries produced shorter motifs and a smaller or similar number of different syllables than their tutors.Aggression levels within the populations were low throughout the experiment, but the number of aggressive interactions was significantly higher in high density aviaries. Baseline corticosterone levels did not differ significantly between high- and low density aviaries for either adult or offspring birds. On day 15 post hatching, brood size and baseline corticosterone levels were positively correlated. On days 60 and 100 post hatching this correlation was no longer present.The results of this study prove that population density affects various aspects of Zebra Finch development, with birds living in low population density conditions having an advantage over those living under higher population density conditions.

Is Metrical Foot a Phonetic Object?

The assumption behind this pilot study is that metrical feet are not ‘groups of syllables’ or ‘interstress intervals’ but rather ‘groups of vowels’ extracted from the phonetic material contained between two stresses. We analysed the duration, pitch, intensity and acoustic energy of all vowels in isolated pronunciations of 72 initially stressed items (mono-, di- and trisyllables). The results reveal that pre-fortis clipping of the stressed vowel and final lengthening are interrelated, which suggests that stressed and unstressed final vowels are able to ‘negotiate’ their durations. Such ‘communication’ between the stressed vowels and the final unstressed ones is possible only if a mediating constituent (the foot) is postulated. Most importantly, we found no significant differences (p < .05) between the total acoustic energy and the total vowel duration in words having a different number of syllables, which supports the assumption of foot-level isochrony in English. It was also observed that the significant increase in vowel duration in stressed CVC monosyllables co-occurs with a significantly greater pitch slope, which we interpret to be a tonally driven implementation of minimal foot binarity requirement.

대용량 전자사전 구축을 위한 국어 대사전의 통계 정보

There are various application areas of Language information processing such as information retrieval, morphological analysis, spell checker, voice recognition, character recognition, etc. In these language information processing areas, an electronic dictionary is essential. This thesis made researches on basic statistical information on the Korean dictionary and on the construction of electronic dictionary. The targets of analysis were the number of registered word in Korea dictionary, the entry number of registered word in electronic dictionary, the number of used syllables, the number of different syllables, the average length of entry, the distribution of part of speech and the number of used nodes to construct electronic dictionary using Trie, except for words including a archaic word or incomplete syllables. Total entry number of electronic dictionary is 361,980, the number of used syllables is 1,289,659, the average length of entries is 3.56 and the number of different syllables is 2,463. Theses informations would play a beneficial role in constructing an electronic dictionary and in processing Korean information.

Neuronal activation in female budgerigars is localized and related to male song complexity.

Females of several songbird species have been shown to respond preferentially to a more complex song. The male budgerigar (Melopsittacus undulatus) sings complex songs consisting of discrete components, known as syllables. We exposed female budgerigars to either standard male song, complex song, or simple song, the iteration of only one syllable (either frequency-modulated or unmodulated). Using immunocytochemistry, we analysed the expression of the protein product of the immediate early gene ZENK in a number of forebrain regions. The level of Zenk protein expression caused by song stimuli varied among each of the brain regions. Expression was highest in the caudomedial neostriatum (NCM), lower in the caudomedial hyperstriatum ventrale (CMHV), and lowest in the hippocampus. There was a significant effect of song complexity on the number of Zenk-immunoreactive cells in the NCM, but not in the hippocampus. Zenk protein expression correlated significantly and positively with the number of different syllables to which the females were exposed in the NCM and to a lesser extent in the CMHV, but not in the hippocampus. For the NCM this correlation was also significant within the group exposed to natural song. These results suggest that the NCM is involved in the perception of song complexity in female budgerigars.

Song Similarity in Populations of Fox Sparrows: A Rejection of Naugler's and Smith's Conclusions

Naugler and Smith (1991) used data on song in Fox Sparrows (Passerella iliaca) to test hypotheses about the evolution of the structure of song in insular avian populations. Their conclusions are incorrect for a host of reasons. The authors appear to have misused or ignored information within the references they cite and they appear to have relied on second-party assessments (Miller 1982) of data within these references. It will become clear that the review process for this manuscript failed in its assessment of the manuscript's accuracy and its contribution to ornithology. Naugler and Smith presented two hypotheses concerning possible effects of insularity on song complexity: (1) The song complexity hypothesis predicts song in insular populations may become more complex than mainland populations due to weaker selective pressures resulting from reduced interspecific constraints (competitive release ?). (2) The founder effect hypothesis predicts song complexity may be less in insular than mainland populations if a develops during the founding of the population. A bottleneck would result in an incomplete sampling of mainland song complexity, thus, exposing future generations to a depauperate species specific auditory field from which to model song. Following the procedures for measuring song complexity presented by Miller (1982), Naugler and Smith generated statistics for four measures of song complexity from their study population of migratory Fox Sparrows on Bon Portage Island, Nova Scotia. These were: (1) size of song repertoire (number of structurally distinct song units sung by an individual), (2) number of syllables/song, (3) number of syllable types/song, and (4) syllable diversity [number of different syllables (syllable types) in a song/total number of syllables in a song]. They then tested the two hypotheses by comparing their statistics with what they assumed to be similar statistics they or Miller (1982) generated from two other non-isolated Fox Sparrow populations reported on by Martin (1977, 1979) and Blacquiere (1979). In brief, these comparisons led them to conclude that song complexity was less in the Bon Portage population and that this condition resulted from a bottleneck ef-

Syllabic features and phonic impression in English, German, French and Spanish

An attempt is made to analyze objectively the syllabic features which contribute to the subjective impression a language makes upon a foreign ear. Four languages are involved in this analysis - English, German, French and Spanish. The syllabic character of each one is emphasized by comparison with the others. 2000 syllables are analyzed in each of the four languages. Seven aspects of the syllable emerge from the objective data. (1) Phonic content in terms of place of articulation based either on the ten most frequent syllables or on the complete corpus of 2000 syllables, shows the following preferences: in English, apical consonants with central vowels: in German, apical consonants with center and front vowels; in (2) The research reported herein was performed pursuant to a contract with the United States Department of Health, Education and Welfare, Office of Education. French, apical consonants with front vowels; in Spanish, apical consonants with a balance of open and mid-open vowels. (2) Consonant-to-vowel ratio, or simply consonantal load since each syllable has only one vowel, is highest in German, almost balanced in English, and lowest in French and Spanish. (3) Variety and complexity of syllabic structures are both greater in the two Germanic languages than in the two Romance languages. The prevailing structures are divided among CVC and CV in German and English, whereas in Spanish and French the CV structure holds a majority by itself alone. (4) Syllable length, in terms of number of phonemes, is also greater in Germanic than in Latin languages. (5) The predominance of closed syllables in German and English (63 and 60 percent) is almost as marked as the preference for open syllables in Spanish and French (72 and 76 percent). (6) In frequency of different-syllable structures, Spanish stands alone - it shows the smallest number of different syllables; English shows the largest number, with German and French not far behind. (7) And again Spanish is set apart with respect to the relationship of syllable length with average-group frequency — Spanish repeats its shorter syllables more often than the three other languages. To these objective data correspond subjective impressions such as frontal resonance, active articulation, auditory richness, forward motion, heaviness, musical predominance, sequential legato, repetitiveness, monotony, (or their opposites) the sum of which contributes considerably to characterizing a language.