Number-letter Task Research Articles

The association between insomnia symptoms and cognitive flexibility among undergraduates: An event-related potential study

ObjectiveTo explore the association between insomnia symptoms and cognitive flexibility among undergraduates, along with its potential neural mechanisms. MethodA total of 102 participants were divided into insomnia (n = 55) and control (n = 47) groups based on sleep status. Cognitive flexibility was assessed using the Cognitive Flexibility Inventory (CFI) and the Number-Letter Task (N-L task). EEG data were recorded during the N-L task. ResultsThe insomnia group exhibited lower CFI scores and higher switch costs in reaction time and accuracy compared to the control group. ERP analysis showed differences in P2, N2, and P3 component amplitudes between the two groups, with reduced N2 amplitude in the insomnia group under repeat trials. Time-frequency analysis revealed larger theta band event related synchronization in the frontal region and smaller theta band ERS in the parietal region under switch trials in the control group; the alpha band event-related desynchronization in the parietal region under repeat trials was significantly smaller in the control group compared to switch trials. ConclusionCompared to undergraduates with normal sleep, those with insomnia symptoms exhibited reduced cognitive flexibility, which may be associated with some alterations in brain electrophysiological activities.

The impact of soccer-specific psychophysiological stress on inhibition and cognitive flexibility in elite youth players

While researchers and practitioners attribute an essential role to executive functions (EFs) for soccer performance, the usefulness of respective diagnostics and the predictive value remain unclear. One limitation restricting the translation and relevance of study results to improve actual game performance is the insufficient consideration of competitive conditions. Thus, this study aimed to conduct soccer-specific cognitive diagnostics under a soccer-specific psychophysiological stress condition, mimicing the demands of a competitive game. A total of 92 (Mage = 15.17, SDage = 1.45) youth elite players performed tests for inhibition (flanker task) or cognitive flexibility (number-letter task) with a soccer-specific motor response (i.e., pass into goals). After a pre-test in a neutral condition, players were randomly assigned to a neutral (moderate soccer-specific exercise) or a stress condition (physical stress and competitive instructions and filming for psychological stress). Objective (i.e., cortisol, heart rate variability) and subjective stress-related measures (i.e., SAM, VAS) were assessed six times throughout experimental procedure. Analyses revealed significant interaction effects between time and condition for all objective and subjective variables indicating a successful experimental stress induction. For cognitive performance, results revealed significant main effects of time, but no significant interaction effects between time and condition. However, descriptive statistics suggested improved performance under stress, with decreased flanker effect and switch costs. Additionally, response time variability in the flanker task significantly decreased in the stress condition. These findings offer insights into individual stress perception and processing under game-related psychophysiological demands, expanding previous research on situational EF alterations that also hold relevance for applied practitioners.

Effects of short mindful breathing meditations on executive functioning in two randomized controlled double-blinded experiments

While current models of mindfulness propose benefits to the executive functions of inhibition, updating and shifting through mindful breathing meditations, empirical findings on the effects of short mindful breathing meditations are inconclusive regarding their specificity and dose-response relations. Therefore, we compared short mindful breathing meditations (Experiment 1, 45 min over three sessions; Experiment 2, 80 min over four sessions) with relaxation trainings (progressive muscle relaxation; active control) and listening to podcasts (passive control) in two randomized controlled double-blinded trials. Reaction time tasks were used to assess the executive functions of updating (N-Back), inhibition (CPT-II), and shifting (Number-Letter Task). Results of both experiments suggest no mindfulness-specific improvements in executive functions. We conclude that effects following the first stages of mindfulness training may not be specific to the practice or too transient to be reliably measured in pre-post intervention designs. Implications for research in the field are discussed.

The effects of a smartphone game training intervention on executive functions in youth soccer players: a randomized controlled study.

Cognitive training primarily aims to improve executive functions (EFs). It has become a popular research topic, as previous studies have provided preliminary evidence that EFs relate to sports performance. However, whether a domain-generic cognitive training intervention can improve EFs in high-performance athletes is still unclear. The present randomized controlled study aimed to examine the effects of an eight-week (5 min/day, 5 days/week) smartphone-based domain-generic cognitive training intervention (i.e., the smartphone game "Fruit Ninja") on EFs in youth soccer athletes (N = 33; intervention: n = 15, passive control: n = 18; German youth soccer academy). We assessed working memory (3-back task), inhibition (Flanker & Go/NoGo task), and cognitive flexibility (number-letter task) in a pre-post design with computerized tasks. The results showed no significant time x group differences attributable to the cognitive training between the intervention group and the control group, except for a response time variable of the Go/NoGo task. These preliminary results do not suggest an application of CT as a smartphone-based game to improve EFs performance in soccer players. However, more research is needed to establish the efficacy of domain-specific interventions in high-level team sport athletes.

Are trait self-control and self-control resources mediators of relations between executive functions and health behaviors?

This study investigated associations between executive functions (i.e., inhibition, working memory, cognitive flexibility) and individual differences in self-control and health behaviors. We examined whether executive functions predict physical activity, sedentary activity, and healthy and unhealthy diets, and whether trait self-control and self-control resources mediate these associations. Three hundred and eighty-five participants completed a questionnaire assessing trait self-control and self-control resources, physical activity, sedentary activity, and healthy and unhealthy diets. They also performed three randomly ordered cognitive tasks, a stop-signal task (i.e., inhibition), a letter memory task (i.e., updating), and a number-letter task (i.e., switching). Structural equation modeling revealed that self-control resources predicted positively physical activity (R2 = 0.08), negatively sedentary activity (R2 = 0.03) and positively healthy diet (R2 = 10). Moreover, trait self-control predicted positively healthy diet (R2 = 0.10) and negatively unhealthy diet (R2 = 0.19). Moreover, analyses revealed that switching significantly predicted self-control resources, and highlighted three totally mediated relations between this executive function and physical activity, sedentary activity and healthy diet. However, no evidence was found supporting associations between inhibition and updating, and health behaviors, or relations mediated by self-control for these executive functions. The findings suggest the importance of trait self-control and self-control resources for health behavior adoption and pave the way for studies exploring the role of the executive functions in an affective context. Open materials [https://osf.io/hpsjw/].

Self-Report versus Neuropsychological Tests for Examining Executive Functions in Youth Soccer Athletes-A Cross-Sectional Study.

Cognitive diagnostics, especially the measurement of executive functions (EFs) in the context of sports and talent diagnostics, is a popular research topic. However, research is lacking on how self-reports are sufficient to examine the EFs of youth athletes for performance diagnostics. Thus, the current study aims to evaluate the relationships between neuropsychological tasks (3-back task, cued Go/NoGo task, flanker task, and number-letter task) and a self-report for examining EFs (BRIEF-SB). Furthermore, it should be investigated whether it is possible to predict the outcome of EF tasks using a self-report inventory. Therefore, 68 young professional soccer players (Mage = 14.26 ± 1.35 years) from a national youth academy were included in the study. The weak-to-moderate correlations (r = 0.000, p = 0.999 to r = −0.442, p < 0.01) and the results of sensitivity analysis (0.125 to 0.538) do not support using a self-report of EFs for cognitive performance diagnostics. The inventory is only suitable for identifying executive dysfunctions in athletes recovering from head injuries or concussions.

An Assist for Cognitive Diagnostics in Soccer: Two Valid Tasks Measuring Inhibition and Cognitive Flexibility in a Soccer-Specific Setting With a Soccer-Specific Motor Response.

In professional soccer, players, coaches, and researchers alike recognize the importance of cognitive skills. Research addressing the relevance of cognitive skills has been based on the cognitive component skills approach (i.e., general cognitive processes) or the expert performance approach (i.e., sport-specific cognitive processes). Our project aimed to combine the strengths of both approaches to develop and validate cognitive tasks measuring inhibition and cognitive flexibility in a soccer-specific setting with a soccer-specific motor response. In the main study 77 elite youth soccer players completed a computerized version of the standard flanker and number–letter tasks as well as flanker and number–letter tasks requiring a soccer-specific motor response (i.e., pass) in a soccer-specific setting (i.e., the SoccerBot360). Results show good reliability for both tasks. For the SoccerBot360 number–letter task, switch effects for response times and accuracy and acceptable convergent validity were shown. A flanker effect for response time but not accuracy was apparent. Due to no acceptable convergent validity, the flanker task was revised (i.e., adaptation of stimuli) and 63 adult soccer players participated in a follow-up validation study in the SoccerBot100. The revised flanker task showed the flanker effect for response time, but not for accuracy. However, acceptable convergent validity for response time was present. Thus, the soccer-specific number–letter and to some extent the soccer-specific flanker task show potential to be used as a valid cognitive diagnostic tool by soccer clubs.

Mechanisms Underlying Cognitive Effects of Inducing a Mindful State.

Mindfulness is understood as a state or practice of guiding attention to the present moment without judgment. While some studies on mindfulness-based interventions demonstrate beneficial effects on cognitive functions (e.g. Chiesa et al., 2011; Yakobi et al., 2021) it still appears challenging to identify underlying mechanisms due to the wide range of research designs and dependent measures used, as well as the frequent absence of active control conditions. Relatedly, processes underlying the effects of short inductions of a mindful state may be unspecific to mindfulness and attainable through other means, such as relaxation (Fell et al., 2010).Therefore, the current study compared the effects of a brief mindfulness induction with a relaxation induction (via progressive muscle relaxation; active control condition) and listening to podcasts (passive control condition) in a pre-post experimental design. 78 participants without recent meditation experience were randomly assigned to the experimental conditions (mindfulness = 25; progressive muscle relaxation = 24; podcast listening = 30) and received corresponding instructions for a total of 40 minutes (2 × 20 minutes) a maximum of 3 days apart. Executive functions of inhibition, updating and switching as well as attentional networks were assessed with the continuous performance task, n-back task, number-letter task, and attention network task, respectively.While updating and executive attention similarly benefited from meditation and relaxation compared to podcast listening, inhibition and shifting measures indicate differential effects of mindfulness induction. Alerting and orienting were not affected by any induction. Implications for mechanisms underlying the effects of mindfulness are discussed.

Inhibition and Calendar Age Explain Variance in Game Performance of Youth Soccer Athletes.

The assessment of core executive functions (EFs; i.e., inhibition, working memory, cognitive flexibility) has often been presented as a diagnostic tool for evaluating cognitive functions in recent publications. For example, EFs are essential in soccer because players must quickly adapt, change strategies, and inhibit responses in rapidly changing game situations. Previous research has shown relations between (subjectively rated) game performance and the EFs of soccer players. Nevertheless, the previous studies’ samples were heterogeneous in their performance level (experts vs. amateurs), and the ratings were rather unsystematic (no validated rating protocol). Therefore, the current study aimed to predict soccer players’ game performance (i.e., systematically rated by coaches) with the help of EF performance. Therefore, we assessed the game performance (small-sided game, Game Performance Assessment Instrument [GPAI]) and EFs (inhibition: flanker task; working memory: 3-back task; cognitive flexibility: number-letter task) of 94 male soccer players (12–19 years old) from Germany’s highest competitive level. Multiple regression model results indicate that inhibition (i.e., flanker effect) and calendar age explain ~18% of players’ game performance variance. Results have to be interpreted with regard to the age-dependency of game performance and EFs. In conclusion, even though the results are based on a cross-sectional study, it appears that calendar age needs to be considered when assessing EFs.

The relationship between executive functions and sports experience, relative age effect, as well as physical maturity in youth soccer players of different ages

ABSTRACT Sports psychology and kinesiology research focused on executive functions in the last ten years as cognitive functions could be one of the smallest adjustments possible in high-level athletes. We examined the connection of sports experience, (relative-) age effects, and physical maturity on the executive functions in male youth soccer players (N = 110). Working memory was assessed using the 3-back task, inhibition was measured using the flanker task, and cognitive flexibility was measured using the number-letter task. We hypothesised that sports experience, (relative-) age effects and physical maturity are positively correlated with executive functions. However, the linear regression model MANOVA test statistics revealed only an impact of calendar age on executive functions. The results demonstrate that athletes attain a certain level in executive functions and gain specific cognitive skills in their sports. Nevertheless, questions about the transfer of executive functions on sport-specific cognitive skills remain unclear.

The Effect of Brief, Low-Intensity Stretching Gymnastics on Autonomic Nervous System Activity and Cognitive Function

Purpose: Stretching exercise and gymnastics both have beneficial effects, such as improvement of autonomic nervous system activity and mood. Additionally, studies on the effects of exercise on cognitive function have been conducted covering a wide range of age groups and have attracted much attention. However, conventional studies have set up programs with implementation times of 20 to 30 minutes. Therefore, shorter stretching programs are needed in order to fit them more easily into one’s free time. We examined the effects of a short 7-minute stretching gymnastics regime on the autonomic nervous system activity and cognitive function in 21 healthy participants. Methods: In this study, the participants performed a 10-minute cognitive task, followed by either Stretch Well Gymnastics, Stretch Band Gymnastics, or Radio Gymnastics sessions on different days. The participants then performed the cognitive task again. Heart rate was measured continuously throughout the experiment and we analyzed the heart rate variability. The cognitive tasks completed by all of the participants were evaluated for inhibitory control and cognitive flexibility. Results: A significant increase was shown in the sympathetic nerve activity during the Stretch Well Gymnastics, compared to the Radio Gymnastics and Stretch Band Gymnastics. Parasympathetic nerve levels were significantly increased after the gymnastics, compared to during the gymnastics, although there were no significant differences between any of the tasks. Additionally, in both the Stroop task and the number-Letter task, reaction times were faster in all of the sessions. In particular, the Stroop task showed the highest values for the Radio Gymnastics sessions, with marginally significantly lower scores for the Stretch Well Gymnastics sessions. Conclusion: The results showed that these heart rate variability responses supported the effects of autonomic activity associated with conventional low-intensity exercise. Additionally, stretching gymnastics for less than 10 minutes showed a positive effect on inhibitory function and cognitive flexibility.

Temporal stability and effect dynamics between executive functions, perceived chronic stress, and hair cortisol concentrations.

Accidents caused by human errors illustrate the fragility of cognitive processing and its coordination by executive functions against stress. To better understand how core executive functions change over time, influence each other, and are affected by chronic stress exposure, a prospective cohort study was conducted from 2016 to 2019. Five hundred sixteen German adults aged 25-55 years (mean age/education age: 38.0/11.3 years, 67% females, 94% occupied, 20% smokers) completed at least one internet-based biannual assessment of response inhibition, updating, and set shifting using a Go/NoGo, spatial 2-Back, and Number-Letter task, respectively. Chronic stress exposure was indicated by self-reports on the Perceived Stress Scale (PSS) and hair cortisol concentrations (HCC). Statistical analyses were performed by multivariate stochastic differential equation modeling. All indicators of executive functions (task-specific RTs in target trials or their contrast to nontarget trials) and chronic stress showed intraindividual stability over time (12% to 63% of their variance was attributable to trait influences). With respect to lagged mutual associations, faster Go/NoGo target RTs predicted faster Number-Letter target RTs later in time, while faster Number-Letter target RTs predicted higher HCC later in time (both with maximum effect sizes of d ≈ 0.1 standard deviations). However, PSS was not predictive of later HCC and vice versa. None of the chronic stress indicators significantly predicted indicators of executive functions at subsequent time points. These findings suggest that set shifting is capable of modulating the body's physiological response to chronic stress exposure, whereas executive functions appear comparably robust against chronic stress exposure. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).

Features of autonomic cardiovascular control during cognition in major depressive disorder.

Previous research has suggested reduced parasympathetic cardiac regulation during cognitive activity in major depressive disorder (MDD). However, little is known about possible abnormalities in sympathetic control and cardiovascular reactivity. This study aimed to provide a comprehensive analysis of autonomic cardiovascular control in the context of executive functions in MDD. Thirty six MDD patients and 39 healthy controls participated. Parameters of sympathetic (pre-ejection period, PEP) and parasympathetic control (high and low frequency heart rate variability, HF HRV, LF HRV; and baroreflex sensitivity, BRS) as well as RR interval were obtained at rest and during performance of executive function tasks (number-letter task, n-back task, continuous performance test, and Stroop task). Patients, as compared to controls, exhibited lower HF HRV and LF HRV during task execution and smaller shortenings in PEP and RR interval between baseline and tasks. They displayed longer reaction times during all conditions of the tasks and more omission errors and false alarms on the continuous performance test. In the total sample, on-task HF HRV, LF HRV and BRS, and reactivity in HF HRV, LF HRV, and PEP, were positively associated with task performance. As performance reduction arose independent of executive function load of the tasks, the behavioral results reflect impairments in attention and processing speed rather than executive dysfunctions in MDD. Abnormalities in cardiovascular control during cognition in MDD appear to involve both divisions of the autonomic nervous system. Low tonic parasympathetic control and blunted sympathetic reactivity imply reduced physiological adjustment resources and, by extension, provide suboptimal conditions for cognitive performance.

An approach to social flexibility: Congruency effects during spontaneous word-by-word interaction.

Cognitive flexibility is the ability to switch between different concepts or to adapt goal-directed behavior in a changing environment. Although, cognitive research on this ability has long been focused on the individual mind, it is becoming increasingly clear that cognitive flexibility plays a central role in our social life. This is particularly evident in turn-taking in verbal conversation, where cognitive flexibility of the individual becomes part of social flexibility in the dyadic interaction. In this work, we introduce a model that reveals different parameters that explain how people flexibly handle unexpected events in verbal conversation. In order to study hypotheses derived from the model, we use a novel experimental approach in which thirty pairs of participants engaged in a word-by-word interaction by taking turns in generating sentences word by word. Similar to well established individual cognitive tasks, participants needed to adapt their behavior in order to respond to their co-actor's last utterance. With our experimental approach we could manipulate the interaction between participants: Either both participants had to construct a sentence with a common target word (congruent condition) or with distinct target words (incongruent condition). We further studied the relation between the interactive Word-by-Word task measures and classical individual-centered, cognitive tasks, namely the Number-Letter task, the Stop-Signal task, and the GoNogo task. In the Word-by-Word task, we found that participants had faster response times in congruent compared to incongruent trials, which replicates the primary findings of standard cognitive tasks measuring cognitive flexibility. Further, we found a significant correlation between the performance in the Word-by-Word task and the Stop-Signal task indicating that participants with a high cognitive flexibility in the Word-by-Word task also showed high inhibition control.

High Cognitive Flexibility Learners Perform Better in Probabilistic Rule Learning.

Cognitive flexibility reflects the ability to switch quickly between tasks or stimulus sets, which is an important feature of human intelligence. Researchers have confirmed that this ability is related to the learners’ academic achievement, cognitive ability, and creativity development. The number-letter switching task is an effective tool for measuring cognitive flexibility. Previous studies have found that high flexibility individuals perform better in rule-based tasks such as the Iowa Gambling Task. It is not clear whether highly flexible learners have learning advantages when the rule tasks involve probabilistic cues. Using an inter-individual differences approach, we examined whether cognitive flexibility, as assessed by the number-letter task, is associated with the learning process of a probabilistic rule task. The results showed that the high flexibility group reached a higher level of rule acquisition, and the accuracy during the post-learning stage was significantly higher than the low flexibility group. These findings demonstrate that cognitive flexibility is associated with the performance after the rule acquisition during the probabilistic rule task. Future research should explore the internal process of learning differences between high and low flexibility learners by using other technologies across multiple modes.

Thinking Against Burnout? An Individual's Tendency to Engage in and Enjoy Thinking as a Potential Resilience Factor of Burnout Symptoms and Burnout-Related Impairment in Executive Functioning.

The personality trait need for cognition (NFC) refers to individual differences in the tendency to engage in and enjoy cognitive endeavors. In today’s working world, which is characterized by increasing cognitive demands, NFC may contribute to resilience against work-related stress and burnout symptoms. We investigated this question in a large population-wide sample of 4,134 individuals (Study 1) and in a sample of 125 students (Study 2). NFC was consistently negatively related to the burnout facets emotional exhaustion and reduced personal efficacy of the Maslach burnout inventory and explained up to 10% additional variance in burnout symptoms over and above the five-factor model of personality. In the student sample, where stress factors are mainly cognitive in nature, NFC was the most relevant predictor. In this sample, we additionally investigated whether NFC might be a relevant moderator of the inconsistently found associations between burnout and impairments in cognitive functioning. The participants conducted three cognitive tasks (number–letter task, two-back task, and Go/NoGo task) that measure the executive functions switching, updating, and response inhibition, respectively. While burnout was slightly negatively related to working memory performance, NFC did not moderate the relationship between burnout and executive control which could be traced back to the young and healthy sample used to examine this research question. All in all, our results clearly suggest that NFC may be an important individual difference factor contributing to the resilience against burnout, especially if stress factors are cognitive in nature.

F91. ASSOCIATION BETWEEN SYMPTOM DIMENSIONS AND EXECUTIVE FUNCTION IN SCHIZOPHRENIA

BackgroundImpaired executive function is a core cognitive deficit in schizophrenia and strongly associated with functional outcomes. Understand the relationship between clinical symptoms and executive function may help the clinician to better manage the cognitive impairment and inform prognosis. The main objective of the present study was to investigate the association between symptom dimensions and executive function in schizophrenia.MethodsOne-hundred and two patients with schizophrenia were recruited from the schizophrenia outpatient clinic from Universidade Federal de São Paulo (PROESQ/UNIFESP). Diagnosis was confirmed through the Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV (SCID-I) and dimensional psychopathology was assessed by the Positive and Negative Syndrome Scale (PANSS). The PANSS items were grouped in five factors: positive, negative, disorganized/cognitive, mood/depression and excitement/hostility factors. The cognitive battery included the following tests: Plus–Minus Task, Number–Letter Task, Trail Making Test - Part B, Keep Track Task, Letter Memory Task, Visual Working Memory Test – MTV, Stroop Test, Semantic Generation Task and The Tower of London Test – TOL. All tasks were computerized and assessed by the software Cronos. A single latent variable for executive function was derived through Confirmatory factor analysis and yield good model fits (CFI: 0.997; TLI: 0.996; RMSEA: 0.017; SRMR: 0.041).ResultsWhen the factors were entered individually, negative (df=121, r=0,35, p <0.001) and disorganized (df= 121; r=-0.48, p <0.001) factors were significant predictors of EF. In a multivariate regression analysis, including all the factors and correcting for age, gender and duration of illness, only the disorganized factor remained significant (r2=0,21,p<0.001).DiscussionThe disorganized factor was the symptomatic dimension more strongly associated with EF. The potential use of disorganized dimension as indicator of poor executive function and related outcomes, i.e., treatment resistant schizophrenia, should be further investigated.

Intrusive Thoughts and Executive Functions in Obsessive Compulsive Disorder

Objectives: Our aim was to compare the effects of an unwanted intrusive thought on executive function in a group of people with Obsessive Compulsive Disorder (OCD) and in a healthy group. Method: The Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function Adult (BRIEF-A) was used to measure executive dysfunction in everyday life in people with OCD. The study participants underwent either an intrusive thought induction or neutral thought induction prior to the administration of three computer-based tests of executive function. Results: The BRIEF-A results confirmed the impairment of executive function in everyday life for patients with OCD. In the number-letter task, patients with OCD displayed a longer reaction time (relative to the controls). There were no intergroup differences in the local-global task. In the go/no-go task, there was a significant impairment (p = 0.03) in the OCD group (with more commission errors than controls). There was a non-significant trend towards an effect of thought induction in both groups in the number-letter task. However, intrusive thought induction did not have a greater effect than neutral thought induction on the OCD group in any of the tasks. Conclusions: Intrusive thought induction has no effect on executive function in the two groups. The two groups differed with regard to two executive tasks.

Executive function and cardiac autonomic regulation in depressive disorders

Executive function impairments have been frequently observed in depressive disorders. Moreover, reduced heart rate variability (HRV) has repeatedly been described, especially in the high frequency band (i.e., respiratory sinus arrhythmia, RSA), suggesting lower vagal cardiac outflow. The study tested the hypothesis of involvement of low vagal tone in executive dysfunction in depression. In addition to RSA, HRV in the low frequency (LF) band was assessed. In 36 patients with depression and 36 healthy subjects, electrocardiography recordings were accomplished at rest and during performance of five executive function tasks (number-letter task, n-back task, continuous performance test, flanker task, and antisaccade task). Patients displayed increased error rates and longer reaction times in the task-switching condition of the number-letter task, in addition to increased error rates in the n-back task and the final of two blocks of the antisaccade task. In patients, both HRV parameters were lower during all experimental phases. RSA correlated negatively with reaction time during task-switching. This finding confirms reduced performance across different executive functions in depression and suggests that, in addition to RSA, LF HRV is also diminished. However, the hypothesis of involvement of low parasympathetic tone in executive dysfunction related to depression received only limited support.

The relationship between general executive functions and bilingual switching and monitoring in language production

We examined the role of general inhibitory control and general set shifting processes in bilingual language production in 51 native Finnish speakers with English as L2, mainly learnt after the age of 7. We tested the hypothesis that inhibitory control, measured with the Simon and Flanker tasks, is central when switching into L1 (Green, 1998) and, more generally, that general set shifting processes, measured with the Number-Letter task, underlie language switching and mixing (Meuter &amp; Allport, 1999). The results were inconsistent. The basic language switch cost effects were in line with the inhibitory control model, but the interactions with the executive tasks did not support the model and were partly contrary to it. The general set shifting hypothesis received some support. Alternative explanations of the sources of the switching and mixing cost asymmetries in bilingual language production are discussed.