Nudism Research Articles

Myth of the 'muse': a History of the Gender Roles Conceptualised in Art

The muse has been historically defined as a source of divine inspiration to the artist, a passive and voiceless object art is made in reflection to but not about. The dynamic is almost always gendered with the female counterpart of the muse being frequently left silent. She takes on a sexualised role, posing nude, as often the relationship between muse and artist extends to romantic one. An erotised and romanticised version of womanhood litters nude paintings of the past, highlighting how the role frequently stripped women of their identity as they were portrayed through the eyes of the male artist. However, there are artists who have challenged these assumptions. Tracing the life of artist Lee Miller and the work of Shigeyuki Kihara reveals how the binaries between the roles of artist and muse are not as rigid as previously thought but are influenced by societal constructs limiting how we perceive and use the role of the muse.

Evolution of Liu Kang’s Palette and Painting Practice for the Execution of Female Nude Paintings: The Analytical Investigation of a Genre

The comprehensive technical investigation of female nude paintings by the Singapore pioneer artist Liu Kang (1911–2004) provided the evidence for a discussion of the evolution of his palette of colours and his working process for expression in this genre, particularly the execution of female bodies. As the artist’s free expression in classical nude paintings was limited by the censorship imposed by the Singapore government, the investigated artworks span two periods, 1927–1954 (early career) and 1992–1999 (the “golden years”, during which censorship policies were relaxed). Hence, eight paintings from the Liu family and National Gallery Singapore were selected for non- and micro-invasive analyses of the paint layers. The obtained results were supplemented with archival sources to elucidate certain aspects of Liu Kang’s working practice. The investigation revealed the importance of drawing and sketching studies in the development of artistic ideas. The analytical techniques, such as polarised light microscopy (PLM), field emission scanning electron microscope with energy dispersive spectroscopy (FE-SEM-EDS) and attenuated total reflectance–Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (ATR-FTIR), enabled us to observe a transition from the yellow iron-based tonal ranges of skin colours to complex pigment mixtures composed of additions of cobalt blue, ultramarine, Prussian blue, Cr-containing yellow(s) and green(s), cadmium yellow, orange and/or red and organic reds, revealing the artist’s more liberal use of colours and his experimentation with their contrasting and complementary juxtaposes. In terms of painting technique, the artist’s comparatively laborious paint application using small brushes quickly gave way to a more effortless manipulation of the paint using bigger brushes and the incorporation of palette knives. Moreover, visible light (VIS), near-infrared (NIR) and X-ray radiography (XRR) imaging techniques led to the discovery of a hidden composition in one investigated artwork, which bears resemblance to the nude painting known only from an archival photograph. Additionally, for the first time, the archival search provided photographic evidence that Liu Kang used oil paint tubes from Royal Talens and Rowney in the 1990s. Overall, this in-depth investigation contributes to the understanding of Liu Kang’s approach to the female nude painting and may assist conservators and art historians in studies of twentieth-century commercial paints.

Analytical characterization of academic nude paintings from the Faculty of Fine Arts of the University of Lisbon

This study illustrates the analytical characterization of 20 academic nude paintings from the collection of the Faculty of Fine Arts of the University of Lisbon, made between 1899 and 1918. The study was performed by combining in situ non-invasive methods (infrared reflectography, radiography, and EDXRF) and laboratory microanalytical techniques (micro-Raman, micro-FTIR, and SEM-EDS). Infrared reflectography revealed underdrawings, underpaintings, painting style, and execution methods. Analytical techniques allowed the identification of painting materials, such as gypsum, lead white, barium white, zinc white, yellow ochre, chrome yellow, zinc yellow, red ochre, vermilion, ultramarine blue, hematite, Mars red, and lamp black. This study provides valuable information on the academic nude paintings’ palette and its artistic production technique. Finally, it intends to continue a systematic analytical study of the Faculty of Fine Arts’ collection, allowing the characterization of Master painters, their students, and other authors.

Modern Bodies and Changing Identities

Modern Bodies and Changing Identities

The Social Perspective on the Female Body in Korean Nude Paintings Focused on the Role of Drapery and Clothes

In this study, we analyzed the images of women in Korean society through the female body expressed in nude paintings from Korea. The study included a literature study and a case study. Through prior research, we examined the history of nude paintings in Korea and the way people conceptualized the female body in Korean society. The case study focused on nude paintings of Korean artists, produced since 1910, when Western painting concept was first introduced to Korea. The social perspective of the female body in Korea was categorized into the three concepts: Eros, Motherhood and Power. Next, we examined the role of drapery and clothes in expressing these three concepts. Drapery and clothes played active roles in hiding and emphasizing the female body, showing the psychology of a woman or the artist''s intention, showing the entire mood of the work, and giving three dimensional feeling and elegance to the work. We could see that the role of clothes changed from expressing a virtuousness in the past to stimulating a voyeuristic gaze in the present.

Superrealistas. Rayos X y vanguardias artísticas by Ana Lamata Manuel

Reviewed by: Superrealistas. Rayos X y vanguardias artísticas by Ana Lamata Manuel Daniel Pérez Zapico (bio) Superrealistas. Rayos X y vanguardias artísticas By Ana Lamata Manuel. Madrid: Marcial Pons, 2017. Pp. 424. Art historian Ana Lamata Manuel offers an outstanding analysis of the echoes of X-rays in continental Europe’s artistic and literary practices of the early twentieth century. Although interaction between the history of science and technology and the history of literature and the arts is not new in the Spanish-speaking world, few works in Spanish have analyzed with such depth and richness the impact of radiology on the artistic avant-gardes. Lamata shows how X-rays were linked to the epistemological and aesthetic model embraced by artists and writers working under the “super realist” banner. A closer look at the cultural context in which Roentgen’s discovery was embedded reveals X-rays alongside a whole set of scientific research and technological innovations: the gramophone, film, aviation, relativity theory, and so on. Radiology thus encapsulated the emergence of a new way of thinking about and representing reality, epitomizing the avant-garde desire to capture reality in depth. The author starts by presenting a set of “radiological myths,” combining several socially constructed cultural hopes and anxieties surrounding Roentgen’s discoveries, with some scientific and pseudoscientific practices overlapping. Lamata traces the transfer of radiological technologies from hospitals to showrooms, exhibitions, popular newspapers, department stores, and households. Her aim is to show how these public perceptions of X-rays informed the artistic avant-gardes’ reflections. Indeed, she builds a convincing cultural history of X-rays based on a detailed analysis of diverse transnational sources, such as novels, the daily press, scientific popularization journals, graphic humor, and even the spiritualist press. The remaining chapters, presented as a “constellation of autonomous and interdependent scenes” (p. 15), focus on authors and artists such as: Guillaume Apollinaire (chapter 2), Pablo Picasso (chapter 3), Marcel Duchamp (chapter 4), Giorgio de Chirico (chapter 5), and Francis Picabia (chapter 6), while chapter 7 describes Italian Futurism and Russian Rayonism. Each chapter features a compilation of artwork and graphic material. My concern, however, is that the author conveys the circulation, transfer, and appropriation of scientific theories and radiological technologies rather vaguely. This is especially true of chapters 2, 3, and 5, where X-rays seem to become a mere metaphor for explaining these artists’ “radioscopic gaze.” Chapter 2, for example, explores Apollinaire’s desire to see reality “radiologically” through what he defines as a “super realistic eye” (p. 73). Yet evidence on how X-rays influenced him rests on weak clues, such as his library containing dissertations on X-rays by Gérard Encausse and Charles Henry, and his friendships with Victor Goloubeff or Alfred Jarry. We might wonder about Lamata’s inclusion criteria, since Jarry, who explicitly incorporates X-rays by using scientific imagery in his texts (see note 29, p. 305), [End Page 975] appears only tangentially. By contrast, chapter 3 discusses how X-rays influenced Picasso’s work, although Lamata acknowledges his “scientific readings were rather scarce” (p. 122). Much more convincing are chapters 4, 6, and 7, where Lamata insightfully analyses the artists’ experiments with X-rays and the aesthetic reflections they triggered. In chapter 4, the reader learns how a rich network of contacts, examinations, and engagement with popular physics nurtured Duchamp’s assimilation of his nude paintings with X-ray images. Artworks such as his Large Glass aimed to reflect reality by dividing the objects as in X-ray articles at the time. Finally, chapter 7, arguably the most compelling of the book, presents the Italian futurists’ desire to shape universal vibrations and advocate other explorations of reality. This chapter similarly explores Russian Rayonism, whose followers present the universe “as a web of electromagnetic radiations from which the painting should be the surface, registration and catalyst” (p. 271). Although this is ostensibly a history of art—with lengthy discussions on artists’ aesthetic and philosophical views and no reference to current history of science and technology literature—it encourages us to move beyond our disciplinary boundaries and establish new dialogues. Lamata’s analytical depth and richness of detail will help...

Birds and Bees, the ‘R’ Word and Zuma’s p*nis: Censorship Avoidance Strategies in a South African Online Newspaper’s Comments Section

Although linguistic practices in online platforms continue to receive fair scholarly attention, limited research has been conducted on online censorship avoidance strategies in South Africa about online newspapers. We use notions of semiotic remediation on comments on two articles on a nude painting of former South African President Jacob Zuma in a popular South African online publication, SowetanLive, to show how the commentators creatively avoid censorship and to operationalise their right of freedom of expression. Particularly, we show the various ways commentators transform and recontexatualise existing semiotic affordances of punctuation marks, letters, digits, South African English, indigenous South African languages and cultural knowledge to achieve new and extended meanings while simultaneously avoiding censorship. This paper demonstrates that censorship strategies are mostly employed to comments related to: (1) racism; (2) gender identities and (3) sex. As extensive as these censorship strategies are, the potential inflammatory content is intentionally made to be decipherable by participants which problematises the concept of ‘censorship’. This paper argues that South Africa is to a large extent still a conservative country that grabbles with socio-political issues such as racism, gender identities, objectification of black bodies and so forth. However the readership of SowetanLive is finding ways to question such conservatism through online platforms and censorship avoidance strategies.

Defying convention: The female nude in Canadian painting and photography during the interwar period

AbstractOften censored and much debated, the nude in Canadian art has held a contentious position since the early twentieth century. The historic focus within Canadian art history on the landscape painting of the Group of Seven has meant that themes concerning the figure and the nude have largely gone unexamined. I analyze a selection of nude paintings and photographs alongside their public reception for what the female nude reveals about the development of modern art in Canada.

Treatises Used by Nude Painting Students at the School of Fine Arts of Lisbon in the ‘Turn of the Century’

This paper research on the existing treatises on nude painting at the School of Fine Arts of Lisbon in the ‘turn of the century’. The collection of all bibliography is presented with a summary of its content and importance to the young painting students with the aim of understanding the treatises that these students used and can represent an influence on their academic production. The compilation was possible to be done with the help of the public national online archive of the Academy of Fine Arts and a publish from (at the time) Professor Varela de Aldemira (1895-1975). The methodology is based on an existing list of acquired publication by the Academy of Fine Arts and the testimony of this last mention Professor. It was noteworthy the importance of the works made by Edouard Charton, which the volumes being produced at this time were important to provide a view of the world. It was anticipated many books on anatomy and painting techniques, but the periodical acquisition of Gazette of Beaux-Arts, The Art Journal, The Fine Arts and The Fine Arts Quarterly Review, allowed ceaseless knowledge of what was being studied and produced internationally. Finally, there is scarce national production, which could be explained by the foreign circulation in Portugal and the special edition made by the Portuguese Professor and founder of the Academy of Fine Arts of Lisbon, Francisco de Assis Rodrigues, revealing that he cared for pedagogical issues. The author hopes that this paper encourages international researchers to fulfill and contribute to a more global understanding of European Painting Education History.

Landscape Painting in Turkish Art of Painting and Periodical Reflections

The landscape is an indispensable subject of our painting art just as like the nature which is an indispensable part of the life of human being. In spite of the different movements and applications in the development line, the nature has maintained its dominant place in the art and it has taken place in the values that shaped the art. The landscape painting among the paintings of the Turkish painters shows that the natural scenes were given importance subject and so the number of the paintings with this subject was great. Our getting acquaintance with the painting as an eastern community has led us to paint with our senility towards the natural scenes. Our first paintings that did not carry the signatures of our painters because of the sensitivity of the painters’ who dealt with the landscapes with an admiring manner that felt afraid to touch the nice landscapes which are created by god with beauty had social values that they did want to put their names before the community. Compositions, still life and even nude paintings that included different points of view towards the natural appearance as well as including landscapes. The natural views have remained in the paintings as indispensable values. Even the abstract paintings that have emerged as a result of the fast flow of the development are abstract paintings of the nature. In this study, the landscape painting in the Turkish Painting Art and its periods in the development period will be dealt with.

Nude Bodies: The Controversial Aesthetics of Exposure

Nude Bodies:The Controversial Aesthetics of Exposure Chris Kent (bio) Nude was a relative term for Victorians, and perhaps all the more thrilling for that. It generally applied to the female body, for both in art and in fact, male nudity was in low demand. Men's fashion saw the triumph of the tubular suit, that egalitarian outfit that, if anything, privileged the physique of men with thin legs and shoulders like coat hangers. Combined with high collars, spats, gloves, and the newly fashionable beard, it meant that about ninety-nine per cent of the properly dressed male body was concealed in public. The general fashion rule for the male body was the less of it showing, the better. Women's fashion, by contrast, featured strategic nudity. If the female body from the waist down was taboo territory, the bust, arms, shoulders, and neck were very much in play. Queen Victoria, who was proud of her shoulders (Munich 64), required décolleté dresses for ladies appearing in court, strictly enforcing that rule until she was almost seventy, when she made known that she would give permission to those, such as infirm or older ladies, who applied through the Lord Chamberlain to wear a "high dress." "No lady who has a good neck and shoulders will wear a high dress," a fashionable dressmaker confidently predicted ("The Queen and Court Dresses" 7). On the stage, "nudity is 'the only wear,'" reported a London newspaper in 1869, noting the scanty costume worn by Nelly Powers as Robinson Crusoe in the Christmas pantomime of that name at Covent Garden ("The Pantomimes" 11). Attractive women played almost all the parts, male and female, in the pantomimes, burlesques, and extravaganzas that were generally the most profitable productions in the Victorian theatre. The few men on these stages were reduced to playing comic roles, including old women. Transvestism ruled because the female body put bums on seats. Male dress enabled the female body, and above all the female leg, which Victorian women's fashion conspired to mystify and conceal, to be openly displayed. The ballet, simultaneously vulgarized and incorporated into spectacles, saw the triumph of the flaring tutu, knee-length and higher, and the reduction of male dancers to lifting devices. Women were increasingly popular in music hall and circus acts. The diarist Arthur Munby, a close observer of the female body, thought "it [was] not well to see a nude man fling a nude girl about … or to see her grip his body in mid-air between her seemingly bare thighs" (qtd. in Smith 54). The first "human cannonball," the beautiful and sensational young "Lulu"—protege of the notable Canadian acrobat William Hunt, who styled himself "the Great Farini"—was actually a boy in drag (Peacock 198). So incensed was the American actress Olive Logan that in "The Nude Woman Question," she denounced the "nude drama" and the "leg business" that were driving respectable, legitimate actresses like herself off the stage (193). [End Page 1] Queen Victoria was an enthusiastic patron of the nude in art. She and Prince Albert frequently gave each other nude paintings and statues as birthday presents. She evidently subscribed to the view of William Etty, a prominent painter of the nude, that "God's most glorious work [was] WOMAN, that all human beauty had been concentrated in her" (qtd. in Lambourne 282). Reconciling the female nude and Christian morals entailed certain artistic conventions intended to discharge the nude's eroticism. The most familiar was to distance the nude subject in space, time, and culture by situating it in pre-Christian Greece or Rome, or in the harems and slave markets of the Islamic Middle East. However, the medieval English setting of Edwin Landseer's Lady Godiva's Prayer (c. 1865) was too close for some critics' comfort (Smith 55). The model Eliza Crowe, who claimed to have sat for early sketches of Landseer's controversial painting, also modelled for Etty. Much better known by her professional name, Madame Warton, she conducted a tableau vivant troupe that was the best known of its era. Tableaux vivants were perhaps the most controversial manifestations of Victorian nudity. These productions went under several names...

A Dialogue with Abraham Uyovbisere's Semi-Nude Figures

A Dialogue with Abraham Uyovbisere's Semi-Nude Figures Kenechi Uzoamaka ANASO Abstract Abraham Uyovbisere has been labelled a feminist for making numerous naturalistic images of females (Akintunde-Johnson 1989, Njoagwu, 1993). A good number of his paintings are semi nude representations of the female and are therefore covered from the waist downwards leaving the upper body completely bare. This raises questions about why an artist who has been publicly regarded as a feminist makes such images. Furthermore, it is necessary to ascertain whether the paintings in question validate or reinforce feministic ideals. Given that Freud established that the natural human is prone to distortions and censorship of original intentions (Richards, 1973), Shank and Tilley's (1987) proposed method of "decent ring" the artist from the analysis of his work was used in the critical and contextual analyses of randomly selected semi nude paintings. Feminist positions on female imagery formed the interpretive context. The results of the analyses revealed that Abraham Uyovbisere employs the wrap to serve euphemistic purposes in his semi-nude female representations. It was also observed that when viewed from the feministic standpoint, the semi-nude paintings are objectified images of the female gender and are therefore an affront to feminism. Full Text: PDF DOI: 10.15640/ijaah.v4n1a5

Analytical characterization of academic nude paintings by José Veloso Salgado

This case study illustrates the analytical characterization of 12 academic nude paintings by Veloso Salgado, made between 1883 and 1893. The study was done with in situ methods (infrared reflectography and EDXRF) and benchtop equipment (Raman and FTIR microscopes and SEM-EDS). Infrared reflectography revealed underdrawings, painting style, execution method and retouched/restored areas. Analytical techniques allowed the identification of gypsum, lead white, barium white, zinc white, yellow ochre, chrome yellow, zinc yellow, vermilion, synthetic ultramarine blue, cerulean blue, Prussian blue, viridian, green earth, Paris green, red ochre, raw umber and lamp black. These results provide valuable information on Salgado’s palette and his artistic production technique and allow the distinction between palettes used in Lisbon and Paris and consequently, technical interchanges between both Academies. Finally, this study intends to start a systematic analytical study of the Faculty of Fine Arts’ collection, allowing the characterization of many other authors and their influences for the development of painting methodology in this Academy.

Tolstoyans on a Mountain: From New Practices of Asceticism to the Deconstruction of the Myths of Monte Verità

The decades before the Great War were a period of exciting cultural creativity and great social upheaval. Both men and women cultivated a great range of interests in ethical, feminist, mystical, spiritualist and sexual ideas and practices. Max Weber referred to this diversity as a ‘department store for worldviews’. Recent historiography has dubbed this period ‘the age of nervousness’ or ‘the quest for purity’. New fascinations held many people in their thrall: the culture of the body and, more specifically, the Life Reform movement. Some felt inspired by their ethical hero Count Leo Tolstoy, the famous Russian writer and pacifist. Tolstoyan colonies based on his philosophy of back-to-nature simplicity were founded in several European countries. One of the places where Tolstoyans experimented with new practices of asceticism was the Monte Verità near Ascona, a village on the Lago Maggiore in the Swiss region of Ticino. This article deals with the transformation of this Tolstoyan colony into a nature cure sanatorium, inspired by ethical and aesthetic values. As a case study it addresses crucial, but ambivalent, aspects of modernity in the ‘natural’ life of nude sunbathing, vegetarian meals, walking barefoot, living in wooden light-and-air cabins and free love marriages. However, this microcosm of Belle Époque Europe has also been the subject of much mythification. The article argues that these forms of myth-making reveal different narratives and models of identification. Deconstruction of Monte Verità myths reveals their popularity as counter-culture narrative (discourse) in the historiography of the 1970s. During the last decade, a comparison between the elitist, artistic lifestyle experiments on Monte Verità and trends in our modern, mass culture (referring to ‘personal authenticity’ or to Foucault’s ‘technologies of the self’) seems to be gaining in influence.

Tricia Starks, The body Soviet: propaganda, hygiene, and the revolutionary state, Madison, University of Wisconsin Press, 2009, pp. xiii, 313, illus., $26.95 (paperback 978-0-299-22964-1).

Tricia Starks, The body Soviet: propaganda, hygiene, and the revolutionary state, Madison, University of Wisconsin Press, 2009, pp. xiii, 313, illus., $26.95 (paperback 978-0-299-22964-1). - Volume 54 Issue 3

NECESSARY NUDES: ḤADĀTHA AND MUʿĀṢIRA IN THE LIVES OF MODERN LEBANESE

In Beirut between 1920 and 1940, the fine-art nude was a necessary genre. Exhibitions of these pictures put audiences on display as much as nudes. Thus, these events enable probing the role of art at intercultural junctures and understanding the experience of self-modernizing subjects outside metropolitan locales. Al-ḥadātha and al-muʿāṣira are analyzed as complementary but noninterchangeable aspects of the modernizing project, to argue that viewing art and appreciating nudes were necessary components of an urban, modern identity for Mandate-era Beirutis. The concept of dislocation is introduced to explore why artists such as Moustapha Farroukh employed academic art formulae to intervene in representational conventions and, in doing so, dislocated common ways of seeing and relating to “Easterners.” Nude paintings evince the importance of intellectuals’ physical and aesthetic experiences in the production of modernity. Moreover, they complicate the common idea that “authenticity” opposed “modernity” in Arab and colonial settings.

Bettina Valentino and the Picasso Club (review)

Reviewed by: Bettina Valentino and the Picasso Club Hope Morrison Daly, Niki . Bettina Valentino and the Picasso Club; written and illus. by Niki Daly. Farrar, 2009104p. ISBN 978-0-374-30753-0$15.95 R Gr. 4-6 When Mr. Peppard, known to his students as Mr. Popart, begins teaching art at Bayside Prep, it is love at first class for young art-lover Bettina Valentino. In fact, Mr. Popart is so spirited, insightful, and daring (as well as being a dashing dresser) that all of the fifth-graders are soaking up his lessons in Dadaism, Cubism, and, naturally, Pop Art—all of the fifth-graders, that is, except Maxine Rattle, who is determined to convince her parents to get Mr. Popart canned. Unfortunately, the Rattles are major benefactors at Bayside, and, following an incident wherein Maxine reports Mr. Popart for showing lewd paintings to the class (nude paintings by Matisse), there is a huge parent meeting and Mr. Popart is suspended. Daly's latest novel is ultimately a story about justice, as perceived by the energetic and wholly likable Bettina. This is also a story about art and about finding art that speaks to you; the class discussions about the art are provocative, and the book clearly implies that different art speaks to different people in different ways. There is a veritable cornucopia of illustrations, from spot art to half-page images throughout the text, depicting everything from the characters in the story to Bettina's fantasies to examples of the artists being discussed; the lively, limber humor of the scenes enhance the story's energy. A strong storyline and standout illustrations combined with a stellar ensemble cast led by the unstoppable Bettina Valentino make this a work of chapter-book art. Copyright © 2009 The Board of Trustees of the University of Illinois

The Impossible Nude: Chinese Art and Western Aesthetics (review)

Reviewed by: The Impossible Nude: Chinese Art and Western Aesthetics Christian Helmut Wenzel The Impossible Nude: Chinese Art and Western Aesthetics. By François Jullien, translated by Maev de la Guardia, with photographs by Ralph Gibson. Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press, 2007. Pp. 136. Hardcover $40.00. The Impossible Nude: Chinese Art and Western Aesthetics by François Jullien is a small book that is well translated and full of ideas.1 Jullien argues—and illustrates—that the nude was not possible in China. The nude, he shows, is not just a naked body, but an idealization, an expression of essence and form, sensible, intellectual, and divine. It freezes a moment in time and evokes the eternal. The nude would not have been possible without the Greek metaphysics of logos, eidos, and hulē, form and matter. Viewed against this background—and assuming that it matters for the nude—it is no wonder that the nude cannot be found in China, where one simply does not have this metaphysical background, but instead is focused on transformation, process, resonance, movement, continuity, the indirect, the allusive, and the indicial. In Chinese painting it is not formal resemblance and fixation that counts, but grasping the energy of qi, the internal coherence of li, and the transmission of spirit, chuan shen. This also leads to an explanation of why in Chinese painting landscapes have usually been favored over human figures in general, not to speak of the nude. These, then, are the basic ideas of the book. The nude can be found all over Europe (p. 10), in sculpture, painting, and photography, and even in the church—in Adam and Eve, the Pietà, the Last Judgment, and the crucified Christ (pp. 13–14). Although the church banned nakedness, it did not ban the nude. The nude is simply different from nakedness. It is not a diminished state, something stripped, laid bare, an object of shame and pity (p. 4). Rather, it offers a view of eternity and essence (p. 26). "The nude is better suited than anything to embody the essence of the beautiful" (p. 121). It is the "embodiment of our quest for the model, archetypal 'primary form' to be reached through sensible form" (p. 65). It "abstracts 'Man"' (p. 54) and is metaphysical: "all true nudes are metaphysical" (p. 22). How does Jullien arrive at this picture? He claims that the nude is a pose that fixes form, and that this concept of form is rooted in Greek metaphysics, in eidos and morphē. "The existence of the nude is made possible primarily by what, with the Greeks, we came to understand by 'form"' (p. 33). For this he goes back to Plato, Aristotle, and Plotinus. Plato asked what beauty is, in itself, in its essence, auto to kalon (p. 120), and Plotinus linked beauty not just to form, eidos and logos, but also, and in particular, to the human body (p. 33). Bodily beauty "participates" in rational principles derived from the gods. Thus, the nude has been possible only through Greek "morphology," morphē, and the Platonic world of Ideas, eidos, and logos (p. 63). The nude freezes movement and form. It immobilizes and reaches for eternity. "Je suis belle, ô mortels! comme un rêve de pierre," Jullien quotes Baudelaire (p. 90)—and the poem is indeed titled "La Beauté." But Jullien also offers another, quite different aspect of the genre in support of his claim. Nude painting and nude sculpture [End Page 240] are based not only on form, but also on anatomy. Greek sculptures not only have the right proportions, they even show the muscles and tendons. Later, Leonardo da Vinci was explicit about this: "In showing the movement of a limb," the painter had to be "familiar with the nature of the nerves, muscles, and tendons," and "the method is a scientific one" (p. 56). A painter had to understand the "causality of forces": he had to "dissect the composition of forces, analyze movements in terms of thrust and traction, evaluate the points of exertion, and determine the bearing points. At once geometrician and physicist, he builds axes, deduces centers of gravity and support, makes his calculations in terms...

PARACLINCAL INVESTIGATION CONCERNING CALVES WITH RESPIRATORY DISEASES TREATED WITH NATURIST PRODUCTS (CETARIA ISLANDICA, PLANTAGO LANCEOLATA, GLYCYRRHIZA GLABRA, VALERIANA OFFICINALIS)

We are taken into study three-four months old calves, males and females, that had respiratory symptoms such nasal discharge, tahypnea, epyphora, normothermia, even subfebrility. The ill calves were separated in three experimental groups of eight calves each. The naturist products were administrated as following: group 1 - Cetraria islandica; group 2 - Plantago lanceolata, Glycyrrhiza glabra, Valeriana officinalis; group 3 - Certaria islandica, Plantago lanceolata, Glycyrrhiza glabra and Valeriana officinalis. The plants extract were administrated per os twice daily for ten days. On day three and day ten of treatment period, blood was taken from the calves and were determined the following parameters: leukocytes formula with hematologic analyzer MS9, enzymatic, proteic and mineral profile with Vet-Screen analyzer. The lymphocytes number increases gradually on all groups. On group 3, at the end of treatment a 7,8 % increase was observed in comparison with the reference values. The eosinophilic percentage is placed between physiological limits (3 ± 0,17 %) excepting group 2 where we have registered a slightly increase (4 ± 0,12 %). The monocytes and basophiles on all groups had values between physiological limits. Individual medium values of ALAT and ASAT are between normal limits on all groups (30 - 35 U/I for ALAT and 21 – 25 U/I for ASAT). Uric acid, creatinin, protein and albumin levels during the period treatment are also between physiological limits. The mineral profile represented by calcium and phosphorus levels revealed in both cases a significant increase at the end of treatment (12,0 ± 1,1 mg/dl for Ca and 9,8 ± 0,5 mg/dl for P). In conclusion we can say that the general status of health improved after treatment even on the calves with reserved prognosis. The medicines based on plant extracts does not contain residues and do not remains in blood, tissues and organs. These extracts do not influence significantly enzymatic, proteic and mineral parameters and can be successfully used on calves in ecological farms.

Do humanitarismo à intolerância. As contradições do discurso integralista

The theme of this article is the Integralism, a fascist politic movement, arisen in the 1930’s in Brazil. The article analyses the integralist discourse ambiguities, contradictions and incongruities, showing the convergence of hostile and exclude principles: the intolerance and humanitarianism. The integralist doctrine is apprehended by some opposites categories that appear in its discourse, which are: nationalism x internationalism, people auto determination x cultural/racial imperialism, naturism x cosmopolitism, nationalization/ integration/homogenization/ x ethnics and racial identities preservation. Key words: intolerance, nationalism, racism.