Norwegian Farms Research Articles

Opportunities and challenges in new production systems for salmon farming in Norway—Industry perspective

The Norwegian salmon farming industry is characterized by an increasing technological diversity with new production systems emerging. The objective of this paper is to provide knowledge about challenges and opportunities with new production systems as perceived by industry representatives with hands-on experience. Interviews and workshops with fish farmers and suppliers illustrate that even though environmental issues concerning salmon lice, escapes, and diseases can be reduced, and in some cases solved, new challenges might arise. Semi-closed containment and land-based system concerns pertained to water quality and fish welfare, while exposed and offshore systems were more concerned about harsh conditions and their effects on fish, structures, and work operations. However, possibilities for beneficial new production strategies, the potential for a more stable production environment, and increased biosecurity are seen as important advantages. These findings provide valuable perspectives for industry, technology suppliers, and regulators moving forward.

How increased heifer growth rate and reduced dairy cow replacement rate can improve farm economy and reduce greenhouse gas emissions - a win to win situation?

Rearing of replacement heifers makes up a significant part of the total costs in dairy farming. Nevertheless, the average age at first calving for dairy heifers still stays well above 2 years in many countries. This study examined the economic and environmental impacts of increased heifer growth rates and reduced replacement rates on Norwegian dairy farms. The current average growth rate in Norway (baseline scenario) was compared to an accelerated growth rate scenario. Within each of the two growth rate scenarios, we compared three different cow replacement rates. A farm account survey dataset containing physical and economic data on 311 Norwegian farms was clustered into three farm groups: small, medium, and large. To model economic consequences, we used the whole-farm linear programming model ScotFarm. A life cycle analysis model was used to model the environmental impacts of the baseline scenario and an accelerated growth rate scenario on the three farm groups. Accelerated heifer growth rate had a positive effect (14–28%) on farm annual gross margin depending on farm size. While accelerated growth rate resulted in only minor reductions in total emissions at farm level compared to the baseline scenario, reduced replacement rate lowered total farm level emissions by up to 8%, and emissions per unit of output by up to 6%. We conclude that an accelerated heifer growth rate scenario could potentially increase farm gross margin by some 14–28% compared with a baseline growth rate scenario. Reducing the replacement rate would be more efficient to reduce farm−level greenhouse gas emissions.

Time for a change? Investigating shifts in agricultural economies and food in southern-central Norway (11th -16th c. AD)

Cattle and, to a lesser extent, sheep/goat and pigs, were crucial components of Norway’s socio-cultural and economic dynamics in the Middle Ages. Zooarchaeological analyses of faunal samples from different urban sites reveal that changes in cattle husbandry practices occurred in Norway over the medieval period, and especially in its early phases. This is clearly demonstrated in the case of medieval Oslo, where an in-depth zooarchaeological study provides the first comprehensive review of cattle husbandry strategies. In the first centuries of the medieval period (11th -mid 12th c. AD), cattle were mainly raised for milk and meat production, while fewer young and more numerous older individuals, most of which probably oxen, were present from mid 12th -13th c. AD onwards. This hypothesis is supported by biometrical analyses of cattle postcranial bones, indicating changes in the sexual composition of cattle herds over time. Therefore, from ca. mid 12th -13th c. AD onward, cattle seem to have been more used for ploughing and, only once old, to have been culled for their meat. In turn, this evidence suggests that more arable lands had to be ploughed, especially in eastern and central Norway. Here, demographic growth and settlement expansion would have led to an increase in food demand; at the same time, more favourable climatic conditions might have contributed to an increase in the availability of arable fields. This article suggests that medieval Norwegian farming was not static as historically thought, but rather connected to wider-scale agricultural innovations characterising other parts of medieval Europe.

Marginality in the berry fields: hierarchical ordering of food and agrarian systems in Norway

AbstractAlthough being essential to sustaining food production, migrant workers continuously find themselves at the bottom of the social and power hierarchy in food and agrarian systems around the world. Effects and origins of hierarchical ordering in food and agrarian systems increasingly gather public, political, and academic attention, however, how it matters for these systems remains little understood. As such, this paper aims to understand how hierarchical ordering shapes migrant worker marginality and links it to the contemporary formations of food and agrarian systems. To do so, this paper explores engaged and embodied dimensions of disadvantaged migrant worker realities. This is done by drawing on research conducted in Norway, mainly consisting of interviews with migrant agri-food worker and farmers, as well as ethnographic data from Norwegian berry farms and supporting document analysis. The analysis reveals a complex picture of the power and reach of hierarchical ordering as it directly and indirectly impacts migrant workers in the Norwegian berry fields, as well as ideas around narrow divisions in food and agrarian systems and society more broadly that are implicated in naturalizing and internalizing such ordering. Following these insights, the paper proposes a theorization of food and agrarian systems as hierarchical projects– structures that find their foundations in patterned ordering that arranges and regularizes power hierarchies on the count of differences.

The battle against the introduced pathogenic monogenean Gyrodactylus salaris in Norwegian Atlantic salmon rivers and fish farms.

The introduced salmonid ectoparasite Gyrodactylus salaris has been detected on Atlantic salmon in 53 Norwegian rivers and in 39 Norwegian fish farms. In affected rivers, the mortality of Atlantic salmon juveniles is very high, estimated to a mean of 86%. G. salaris has been considered one of the biggest threats to wild Norwegian Atlantic salmon stocks. With various measures, the authorities have reduced the potential for further spread of the parasite to new rivers and fish farms, and G. salaris has been eradicated from 43 rivers and all fish farms. Furthermore, the eradication process is almost completed in five affected rivers located at the Norwegian west coast, while preparations for the eradication in the remaining five rivers in the southeastern part of Norway have begun. The goal of Norwegian management is to eradicate the introduced pathogenic G. salaris strains from all occurrences in Norway. In fish farms, the parasite has been removed by mandatory slaughter of infected fish. In rivers, G. salaris has mostly been removed by killing all the fish hosts with rotenone. The indigenous genetic Atlantic salmon stocks are re-established after eradication of the parasite. New methods are developed using chemicals that kill the parasite without killing fish in the rivers. Norwegian authorities have so far used more than NOK 1.5 billion on research, monitoring and combating G. salaris. However, the benefits are considered many times greater than the spending. Without control measures, G. salaris would likely have spread to new Atlantic salmon rivers where the same catastrophic outcome had to be expected. The Norwegian authorities seem to meet the goal in their long-term work to halt the spread of G. salaris and to eradicate the parasite in affected rivers.

Touch: Romanticised micro-moments from a farm kindergarten

Focusing on two micro-moments between non-human animals and young human children in a Norwegian farm kindergarten, this article contributes to knowledge about pedagogical work with multi-species meetings. The micro-moments from a field study are discussed through an exploration and troubling of what we call our ‘romantic’ experience of the children's meetings with farm animals and our resistance to those feelings. We explore what we perceive as a mutual trust, curiosity and interest between the young children and the animals that we relate to Despret's concepts being polite and getting to know, and Haraway's concept companion species. Our discussion contributes an alternative perspective to the traditional view of children-animal relations.

Comparing the effects of contact duration on cow and calf performance beyond separation - a prospective cohort study

BackgroundConsumers, the industry, and many farmers have shown increased interest in alternative management systems that allow for cow-calf contact (CCC) and this topic has become an important focus of research for a sustainable dairy industry. Among the many knowledge gaps still existing in this novel research field, there is a need for further research to investigate effects of CCC beyond the nursing period (i.e., after cow-calf separation). Moreover, multi-herd observational studies are scarce. Therefore, the aim of this study was to investigate the within-herd effect of CCC on machine milk yield and calf growth beyond separation. In this prospective cohort study, we studied all cows and their calves (Norwegian Red breed) born between September 1st 2021 and January 31th 2022 at three Norwegian dairy farms, investigating the impact of CCC on machine milk yield and calf average daily gain (ADG) after separation of the cow-calf pair. The follow-up period was 305 d for cows and six months for calves. Machine milk yield was automatically registered at each milking and calf heart girth was measured once a month. As various contact durations emerged, they were categorized into three groups: no contact (NC 0–3 d), short duration (4–30 d) and long duration (> 30 d). Data were analyzed with linear mixed models with the individual animal as the unit of interest. For cows, days in milk (DIM) from date of separation up to 305 DIM were included in the analysis as a continuous variable. For calves, age up to 195 d was used in the statistical analysis.ResultsWe found no differences in machine milk yield after separation across the different contact groups: cows with no contact (n = 28), short duration (n = 51) and long duration (n = 27) of contact, all exhibited comparable milk yields from the time of separation until the end of lactation. Furthermore, in the case of calves, no disparities in average daily gain (ADG) were identified for any of the contact groups: calves with no contact (n = 39), short duration (n = 61) and long duration (n = 38) of contact, displayed comparable growth during the first six months of life.ConclusionsOur findings indicate no negative effects of CCC on machine milk yield after separation, nor any sustained effects on calf growth under the conditions of this study. More multi-herd observational studies conducted on-farm is needed to expand the understanding of effects of CCC on cow and calf performance after separation.

Measuring environmental concentrations of hydrogen peroxide following bath treatment

Measurements of environmental concentrations of hydrogen peroxide following bath treatment at a Norwegian fish farming site was performed by using a flexible, robust and mobile measurement system covering multiple depths, ranging from 5 to 100 m. This system was supported by real-time current and dispersion modelling, making it possible to detect and track the hydrogen peroxide as it spread from the treated net pen. The collected data indicates a complex vertical behaviour of the bath water after the release of the tarpaulin, with hydrogen peroxide found both in the surface layer and at depth within the study area. Concentrations peaked in the upper 40 m near the net pen where the highest concentrations reached 300 mg/L, equivalent to a dilution factor of 5. A falling gradient of concentrations was found with increasing distance from the net pen. Numerical model simulations were used to support and gain further insight into the measured data. Experience gained in the present and in previous studies points also to potential improvements that can be incorporated in future studies, where particular attention should be paid to the near-field effects of the tarpaulin removal, as well as measurements of concentrations further downstream from the fish farm.

Conventional or organic cattle farming? Trade-offs between crop yield, livestock capacity, organic premiums, and government payments

CONTEXTAn important question for farmers is whether to run their farm conventionally or organically. This choice can significantly affect the farm's financial performance and its impact on the environment. OBJECTIVEThe primary objective of this study is to compare the profitability of conventional and organic cattle systems and investigate how it is associated with individual farm characteristics, like forage production capacity, forage quality, milk quota, animal housing capacity, and their relative presences. METHODWe employ a whole farm optimization model, customized for Norwegian cattle farming. The primary goal of this model is to maximize the gross margin by optimizing decisions related to land usage and animal inventory while adhering to a set of constraints. We systematically solve more than 200,000 model instances, with varying farm characteristics. RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONSThe results can be distilled to the following key points: If forage of good quality is readily available, but the livestock operation cannot be expanded due to animal housing and milk quota restrictions, organic may outcompete conventional farming. Otherwise, gross margin is maximized with conventional farming. These findings emphasize the crucial role of forage production capacity and quality in relation to available milk quota and infrastructure when considering the transition from conventional to organic farming. Extensive sensitivity analyses affirm the robustness of these conclusions. Regional regulatory factors, such as government farm payments, also play a significant role, and influence the optimal farming approach. Additionally, we show that increases in organic price premiums can markedly impact the competitiveness of organic farming, even in a system where government payments make out a significant part of the farm revenue. SIGNIFICANCEThe model can support farmers to make informed decisions about converting to organic or conventional farming. It can also be used by policymakers to determine the level of support required to make it worthwhile for different types of farms to convert. We also show that existing government payment schemes give rise to regional differences in the incentives for organic farming in Norway. To ensure equal incentives for organic farming across the country, the organic payments would have to be regionally adjusted, in line with the other already regionally dependent government payments. This insight may be of significant interest to policymakers and other stakeholders.

Emotion regulation of sustainability professionals facing adversity

In this Group. Interaction. Organizations. (GIO) article, we view Norwegian regenerative farmers as sustainability professionals and explore their emotions and emotion regulation strategies as they face adversity at work. Working with sustainability is intense work as it implies addressing economic, sustainability, and social needs. Regenerative farmers experience heightened stress and strains due to limited resources in farming. We did a qualitative study based on participant observation and interviews and found that regenerative farmers reported emotions such as guilt, pride, frustration, joy, sadness, and loneliness in their work. They regulated their emotions by a) redefining and accepting problems as challenges; b) creating meaning from their work; c) seeking community through exchange of knowledge and care; and d) protecting their philosophy and practice. This study identifies how sustainability professionals might regulate their emotions over transitions to more sustainable practices. We found that it is essential to facilitate social connections between sustainability professionals for their wellbeing, and mental health.

Exploring Options for Syndromic Surveillance in Aquaculture: Outbreak Detection of Salmon Pancreas Disease Using Production Data from Norwegian Farms

Exploring Options for Syndromic Surveillance in Aquaculture: Outbreak Detection of Salmon Pancreas Disease Using Production Data from Norwegian Farms

Comparison of Greenhouse Gas Emissions, Nitrogen Intensity, Gross Margin, and Land Use Occupation between Comparable Conventional and Organic Managed Dairy Farms

In this study, 200 Norwegian dairy farms were analyzed over three years to compare greenhouse gas emissions, nitrogen (N) intensity, gross margin, and land use occupation between organically and conventionally managed farms. Conventionally managed farm groups were constructed based on propensity matching, selecting the closest counterparts to organically managed farms (n=15). These groups, each containing 15 farms, were differentiated by an increasing number of matching variables. The first group was matched based on geographical location, milk quota, and milking cow units. In the second match, the proportion of milking cows in the total cattle herd was added, and in the third, the ratio of milk delivered to milk produced and concentrate usage per dairy cow were included. The analysis showed that the conventionally managed farms (n=185) had higher greenhouse gas emissions (1.42 vs 0.98 kg CO2 per 2.78 MJ of edible energy from milk and meat, calculated as GWP100-AR4) and higher N intensity (6.9 vs 5.0 kg N input per kg N output) compared to the organic farms (N=15). When comparing emissions per kg of energy-corrected milk (ECM) delivered, conventional farms also emitted more CO2 (1.07 vs 0.8 kg CO2 per kg ECM). Furthermore, conventionally managed farms showed lower gross margins both in terms of NOK per 2.78 MJ edible energy delivered (5.8 vs 6.5 NOK) and per milking cow unit (30 100 vs 34 400 NOK), and they used less land (2.9 vs 3.6 m² per 2.78 MJ edible energy delivered) compared to organic farms. No differences were observed among the three conventionally managed groups in terms of emissions, N intensity, land use occupation, and gross margin.

From values to actions in agriculture: A web of actors shape Norwegian farmers' enactment of relational values

Abstract A sustainable transition in the agri‐food system holds society‐wide implications. Farmers play central roles in responding to climate change, environmental degradation and sustainable food production. Still, factors underlying how farmers make decisions and manage their farms are often marginalised in efforts to develop policies to tackle these issues. The concept of relational values, defined as preferences, principles and virtues based on human–nature relationships, recently emerged to expand understandings of environmental decision‐making in general and that of farmers specifically. As agricultural landscapes are dynamic and characterised by the interaction of various actors with diverse values and interests, how these interactions influence farmers' decisions remains underexplored. This paper engages with these issues by using qualitative data on Norwegian horticultural farmers' motivations, opportunities and challenges in farming. We find that their relational values (a) are influential in shaping farmers' decisions about farm management and (b) are continually unfolding and embedded within a web of other actors, including grocers, retailers, consumers, farm advisors and policymakers, which shapes farmers' enactment of their relational values. In the context of agriculture, this research underlines the utility of an in‐depth understanding of relational values as embedded in wider social systems to enrich analyses of farmer decision‐making. How farmers' relational values are shaped and realised through interactions with other actors holds important implications for policy and programming to navigate tensions between different interests and actors for sustainable and long‐term change. Read the free Plain Language Summary for this article on the Journal blog.

Monitoring regional benthic environment of Norwegian salmon cage farms

The influence of cage aquaculture on the benthic environment is a crucial concern for sustainable development. The impacts are affected by multiple environmental factors and aquaculture operations. Our main objective was to comprehensively analyze the interaction between Norwegian salmon aquaculture and the benthic environment, involving prolonged temporal observations and wide-ranging spatial assessments, achieved through reviewing government-regulated environmental assessment reports. A total of 3480 reports from 759 farms operating between 2016 and 2022 were analyzed. Our main finding was that the impact of Norwegian salmon cage aquaculture on the benthic environment varied significantly across the Northern, Central, and Southern regions (p < 0.001). This variability was significantly associated with factors such as water depth (p < 0.05), maximum allowable biomass density (p < 0.001), and length of the production cycle (p < 0.001), and was slightly correlated with current velocity (p = 0.067). Additionally, we observed that the most severe environmental degradation often occurred during the summer-autumn period under maximal annual feeding rates. Further, we traced 2922 reports to investigate the changes in the state of the benthic ecosystem over multiple production cycles. We found that the environmental impact of seafloor ecosystems was recoverable, with more effective recovery rates in the early stages of degradation compared to the later stages. We suggested that the optimal biomass levels, production cycle arrangement, and farming practices should differ depending on specific environmental factors. It is imperative to consider these factors for adapting farming operations and take early action when the benthic environment shows signs of degradation.

A blessing in disguise: advisers’ experiences with promoting climate change mitigation among Norwegian farmers

ABSTRACT Purpose The purpose of the paper is to analyze how promotional and advisory efforts address climate change mitigation in Norway and to learn how advisers navigate between governmental goals to address the common good and farmers’ private needs. Methodology Empirical data was obtained through semi-structured in-depth interviews with eight agricultural advisers with the mandate of promoting climate-friendly farming, as well as through notes and presentations from a workshop involving advisers and agricultural schoolteachers. Data were analyzed qualitatively on the basis of meaning condensation and meaning categorization. Findings Only the most enterprising farmers have proactively sought climate advice and attended climate courses – and primarily for farm-benefiting gains other than climate change mitigation. The advisers see it as essential to highlight the overall gains that derive from climate change mitigation and that benefit farms in the broader sense in order to motivate farmers, while the central communication around climate advice and courses more narrowly solely focuses on the opportunity to reduce emissions. Practical implications and value It is important to create a suitable framing of climate change mitigation and its benefits both at the macro (policy and programme) and micro (farm-level advice) levels, in order to reach out to as many farmers as possible. Theoretical implications Advice framing that puts greater emphasis on the private, non-climate-related benefits of climate change mitigation actions seems to stimulate greater support for these actions than a common-good framing focused on addressing climate change only.

Offshore wind farm site selection in Norway: Using a fuzzy trigonometric weighted assessment model

Maximising the energy potential of offshore wind farms requires an in-depth assessment of technological, economic, sociopolitical, and environmental aspects. Given the large economic impact of large-scale projects, a robust site selection procedure is critical for limiting financial risks while supporting informed investments. This research uncovers a novel and multidisciplinary approach for boosting the efficacy of Norwegian and global offshore wind farm siting investments. The proposed method uses a two-stage fuzzy mathematical model that considers technical, economic, logistical, and environmental factors. It combines the Ordinal Priority Approach (F-OPA) and Trigonometric Weighted Assessment (TRWA) technique by using an in-depth techno-economic assessment. An alternative reactive power compensation model, power loss calculations, and associated techno-economic analysis were performed for the investigated offshore wind farm locations. Furthermore, the energy economic calculations are carried out to provide support for the proposed decision-making framework. The proposed methodology was tested through a case study, focusing on ranking Norwegian offshore wind farm sites selected from potential locations announced by The Norwegian Water Resources and Energy Directorate (NVE). Within the Norwegian offshore wind farm sites, the approach demonstrated a versatile and efficient decision-making process at both individual and collective levels, identifying the Sandskallen-Sørøya Nord project as a pivotal investment priority and providing valuable managerial insights to enhance Norway’s offshore wind initiatives. The model’s stability was affirmed through a sensitivity analysis, underscoring its potential to enhance renewable energy policy and decision-making globally.

A Billion‐Euro Industry? (De‐)territorialisation Processes of Norway's Seaweed Farming Assemblage

AbstractSeaweed farming is a rising sector in European policy narratives and is increasingly integrated in coastal countries' bioeconomy strategies. Norway aims to lead this European ‘Seaweed Revolution’. Envisioned as a ‘billion‐euro industry’, its development is in its infancy yet contains ambitions for upscaling and socio‐economic credentials that promote it as a sector for sustainable finance and investments. Through assemblage conceptualisation, the paper unfolds the relations that connect the fluid materialities of seaweed with ambitious business plans, coastal localities, calls for upscaling, complex markets and assesses the trajectories potentials for sector development. Instead of forecasting the future of seaweed farming in Norway, it displays how the sociospatial complexities of the Norwegian seaweed farming assemblages' components enable or disperse currently dominant and optimistic sectoral narratives, providing a critical window to highlight the underlying and partially contradictory processes that shape the development trajectories of a sector promoted as a beacon of sustainable transformation.

Antigenic similarities and clinical cross-protection between variant and classic non-viscous strains of Moritella viscosa in Atlantic salmon in Norway

Moritella viscosa (M. viscosa) is one of the major etiological agents of winter-ulcers in Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) in Norway. Outbreaks of ulcerative disease in farmed fish occur across the North Atlantic region, causing reduced animal welfare and economical challenges, and are of hindrance for sustainable growth within the industry. Commercially available multivalent core vaccines containing inactivated bacterin of M. viscosa reduce mortality and clinical signs related to winter ulcer disease. It has previously been described two major genetic clades within M. viscosa, typical (hereafter referred to as classic) and variant, based on gyrB sequencing. In addition, there are phenotypical traits such as viscosity that may differ between different types of isolates. Western blot using salmon plasma showed that classic non-viscous strains are antigenically different from the classic viscous type included in core vaccines. Further, Western blot also showed that there are similarities in binding patterns between Norwegian variant and classic non-viscous isolates, indicating they may be antigenically related. Vaccination-challenge trials using Norwegian gyrB-classic non-viscous isolates of M. viscosa, demonstrate that the isolates from the classic clade that are included in current commercial multivalent core vaccines, provide limited cross protection against the emerging non-viscous strains. However, a vaccine recently approved for marketing authorization in Norway, containing inactivated antigen of a variant M. viscosa strain, demonstrates reduced mortality as well as clinical signs caused by infections with the classic non-viscous M. viscosa isolated from outbreaks in Norwegian salmon farms. The study shows that there are antigenic similarities between variant and classic non-viscous types of M. viscosa, and these similarities are mirrored in the observed cross-protection in vaccination-challenge trials.

Evaluating environmental effects of adopting automatic milking systems on Norwegian dairy farms

Abstract We present a novel procedure based on eco-efficiency for assessing farm-level effects of technology adoption while considering secondary effects. Secondary effects are defined as structural and behavioural adaptations to technology that may impact environmental, social or economic outcomes. We apply the procedure to automatic milking systems (AMS) in Norway and find that AMS induces secondary effects, most strongly by decreasing labour per cow and increasing herd sizes. For estimating effects of AMS we employ a novel causal machine learning approach. AMS induce heterogenous effects on eco-efficiency, negatively associated with herd expansion and labour per cow.

Greenhouse gas emission reduction opportunities for the Norwegian salmon farming sector - can they outweigh growth?

Norwegian farmed Atlantic salmon is a nutritious type of food in increasing demand and although production has stagnated and is faced by various challenges, it is likely to continue to expand in the future. We present results from a detailed greenhouse gas emission assessment of the most important Norwegian farmed salmon export products along with improvement measures. By scaling up both baseline results and reduction opportunities, based on growth projections, we estimate current and future emissions of the sector as a whole. We show that export of gutted salmon to Europe by truck dominates Norwegian salmon exports, not only in volume and value, but also in emissions, followed by export of fresh gutted salmon and fillets to Asia and fillets to the US by air. The cumulative greenhouse gas emissions are dominated by feed production followed by emissions from overseas airfreighting of fresh products. The five most important emission reduction measures, based only on existing technology and without particular order were 1) slightly increased feed efficiency, 2) increased utilization of side streams occurring in secondary processing after export, 3) seafreight to market instead of road and air, 4) higher energy efficiency and cleaner energy sources, and 5) changed feed composition. Collectively, they have the potential to reduce greenhouse gas emissions of current production by 60%, from 5.2 to 2.1 million tonnes of CO2e, assuming the same relative importance of each supply chain.This implies that a medium growth-scenario, representing more than a doubling of the volume of salmon farmed to 3.3 million tonnes, would be possible while reducing total sector emissions by 16% if the improvement measures were fully implemented. For larger reductions, either lower growth or more ambitious implementation of improvement measures is needed. Although greenhouse gas emissions are often linked to resource efficiency and wider sustainability, this is not always the case, and it is important to avoid shifting burdens from climate to e.g. eutrophication or biodiversity impacts. However, many environmental impacts of salmon farming are centered around feed efficiency, and even problems with welfare, escapees, and in part eutrophication are reflected in lower feed efficiency resulting in higher greenhouse gas emissions. In addition to the systematic collection of robust data for more continuous monitoring of greenhouse gas emission performance over time, we therefore recommend identifying additional indicators to monitor to ensure the sector develops not only towards climate neutrality but also towards broader sustainability.