Northern Triangle Of Central America Research Articles

Migrant caravans in the Northern Triangle of Central America during the Covid-19 pandemic: An overview of the causes, mechanisms and changes in U.S. immigration policy

The economic and social conditions that are the main drivers of human mobility have deteriorated due to the Covid-19 pandemic. When states closed their borders and limited travel to essential purposes only, human mobility disappeared almost completely. Before the pandemic, the last few decades had brought a growing number of so-called migrant caravans heading from Central America to the United States with the intention of entering illegally. Some projections assumed that restrictions implemented by US border immigration policy during the pandemic would stop illegal crossings, at least in the short term. It is this idea that forms the core discussion of this article. Starting by outlining the characteristics of the most well-known caravan that left Honduras in 2018, and explaining the mechanisms that managed this phenomenon, the article seeks to analyse migration during the pandemic. Through investigation of the root causes of migration, operational aspects of forming caravans and changes in immigration policy, it achieves its main goal of finding an answer to the question of whether the pandemic affected migration and, if so, what has changed.

Gender occupational intensity and wages in the Northern Triangle of Central America

PurposeThis paper aims to explore the relationship between gender occupational intensity and wages in the Northern Triangle of Central America using national surveys carried out in 2014.Design/methodology/approachA harmonized occupational classification at the -digit level is built with the objective of analyzing the occupational distribution across countries. Then, quantile regressions (QRs) are estimated to explore in detail which factors are affecting the wages of both females and males; in particular, this paper pays special attention to female occupational intensity (the share of females within each occupation).FindingsThe comparative analysis suggests that women are overrepresented in certain occupations, and they are much more likely to be working in part-time jobs than men in all countries. Furthermore, findings reveal that working in female-dominated occupations has a negative effect on wages along the distribution across countries. However, the effect of this variable is higher at the lower quantile of the distribution for women, especially in El Salvador and Honduras.Originality/valueThis paper first proposes a new typology of occupations, which allows a consistent and comparable analysis of the occupational structure. The results then provide a picture to address gender occupational intensity and its links with wages. Further, the characteristics of the labor market and differences in trends across these countries suggest that this topic requires challenging research for the region.Peer reviewThe peer review history for this article is available at: https://publons.com/publon/10.1108/IJSE-03-2021-0165

Disasters in the Northern Triangle: A Descriptive Analysis Using the EM-DAT Database 1902-2022.

Since 1902, disasters in the Northern Triangle of Central America, which consists of the countries Guatemala, Honduras, and El Salvador, have caused over one-hundred-thousand deaths, affected millions of people, and caused tens of billions of dollars in damages. Understanding the nature and frequency of these events will allow stakeholders to decrease both the acute damages and the long-term deleterious consequences of disasters. This study provides a descriptive analysis of all disasters recorded in the Emergency Events Database (EM-DAT) affecting Guatemala, Honduras, and El Salvador from 1902-2022. Data were collected and analyzed from the EM-DAT, which categorizes disasters by frequency, severity, financial cost, distribution by country, burden of death, number of people affected, financial cost by country, and type of disasters most prevalent in each country. Results are presented as absolute numbers and as a percentage of the overall disaster burden. These trends are then graphed over the time period of the database. The EM-DAT recorded 359 disasters in the Northern Triangle from 1902 through 2022. Meteorologic events (floods and storms) were the most common types of disaster (44%), followed by transport accidents (13%). Meteorologic events and earthquakes were the most severe, as measured by deaths (62%), people affected (60%), and financial cost (86%). Guatemala had the greatest number of disasters (45%), deaths (68%), and affected people (52%). The financial costs of the disasters were evenly distributed between the three countries. Meteorologic disasters are the most common and most severe type of disaster in the Northern Triangle. Earthquakes and transport accidents are also common. As climate change causes more severe storms in the region, disasters are likely to increase in severity as well. Governments and aid organizations should develop disaster preparedness and mitigation strategies to lessen the catastrophic effects of future disasters. Missing data limit the conclusions of this study to general trends.

Violencia y derecho a la educación en el Triángulo Norte centroamericano

Based on a human rights and development approach, this article aims to study the influence and impact of structural violence in the Northern Triangle of Central America on children's right to education. First, it analyses the context of poverty, inequality and generalised violence that plagues the sub-region under study. Secondly, a diagnosis is made of the situation regarding the right to education through indicators of educational completion and efficiency, including critical moments in the transition through the education system, as well as the phenomenon of school dropout. The article then analyses a series of determining factors in the violation of the right to education, insofar as they are linked to the situation of generalised structural violence. Finally, a series of conclusions are offered in order to guide debate and reflection on possible solutions to the problem studied.

Persistence of Emotional Distress in Unaccompanied Migrant Children and Adolescents Primarily From the Northern Triangle of Central America

In the US, unaccompanied migrant children and adolescents (hereinafter referred to as children) are predominantly from Central America's Northern Triangle. While unaccompanied migrant children are at high risk for psychiatric sequelae due to complex traumatic exposures, longitudinal investigations of psychiatric distress after resettlement are lacking. To identify factors associated with emotional distress and longitudinal changes in emotional distress among unaccompanied migrant children in the US. For this retrospective cohort study, the 15-item Refugee Health Screener (RHS-15) was administered between January 1, 2015, and December 31, 2019, to unaccompanied migrant children as part of their medical care to detect emotional distress. Follow-up RHS-15 results were included if they were completed before February 29, 2020. Median follow-up interval was 203 days (IQR, 113-375 days). The study was conducted in a federally qualified health center that provides medical, mental health, and legal services. Unaccompanied migrant children who completed the initial RHS-15 were eligible for analysis. Data were analyzed from April 18, 2022, to April 23, 2023. Traumatic events before migration, during migration, during detention, and after resettlement in the US. Emotional distress, including symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder, anxiety, and depressive symptoms, as indicated by the RHS-15 (ie, score ≥12 on items 1-14 or ≥5 on item 15). In total, 176 unaccompanied migrant children completed an initial RHS-15. They were primarily from Central America's Northern Triangle (153 [86.9%]), were mostly male (126 [71.6%]), and had a mean (SD) age of 16.9 (2.1) years. Of the 176 unaccompanied migrant children, 101 (57.4%) had screen results above the positive cutoff. Girls were more likely to have positive screen results than boys (odds ratio, 2.48 [95% CI, 1.15-5.34]; P = .02). Follow-up scores were available for 68 unaccompanied migrant children (38.6%). On the follow-up RHS-15, most scored above the positive cutoff (44 [64.7%]). Three-quarters of unaccompanied migrant children who scored above the positive cutoff initially continued to have positive scores at follow-up (30 of 40), and half of those with negative screen scores initially had positive scores at follow-up (14 of 28). Female vs male unaccompanied migrant children (unstandardized β = 5.14 [95% CI, 0.23-10.06]; P = .04) and initial total score (unstandardized β = 0.41 [95% CI, 0.18-0.64]; P = .001) were independently associated with increased follow-up RHS-15 total score. The findings suggest that unaccompanied migrant children are at high risk for emotional distress, including symptoms of depression, anxiety, and posttraumatic stress. The persistence of emotional distress suggests that unaccompanied migrant children would benefit from ongoing psychosocial and material support after resettlement.

Joining a migrant caravan: herd behaviour and structural factors

The largest migrant caravan headed from the Northern Triangle of Central America to the southern border of the United States left Honduras on 13 October 2018. When it crossed the border into Mexico, many people wondered why more than 7000 Central Americans were moving to a country with such adverse immigration policies. This research answers the question by interviewing migrants from the Caravan during their travel through Mexico, and combining previously documented factors, such as the search for jobs, better wages, preserving their lives from threats from criminal groups, migration policies and economic interests, with novel explanations derived from herd behaviour in the Caravan. This theoretical addition of herd behaviour allows us to better understand the aggregation of individual preferences that have economic incentives and contributes to the academic debate on the factors that drive collective migrations.

Sexual and reproductive health of migrant women and girls from the Northern Triangle of Central America.

To understand the sexual and reproductive health (SRH) experiences of migrant women and girls of reproductive age (15-49 years) from the Northern Triangle of Central America (El Salvador, Guatemala and Honduras) during their journey to the United States. A descriptive, qualitative research design included 39 in-depth interviews with migrant women and unaccompanied migrant girls from El Salvador, Guatemala and Honduras from January to June 2022. Participants were recruited using purposive sampling. Interviews were transcribed, coded and analyzed using thematic analysis. Migrant women and girls lack information and resources to manage their SRH during migration. The SRH of those traveling with smugglers is compromised due to their limited access to menstrual pads, water and sanitation services; the risks of transactional sex and sexual violence; the high risk of sexually transmitted infections; the inability to report sexual violence; the lack of access to SRH and prenatal services; and limited knowledge about their sexual and reproductive rights. There is a significant need for improved interventions during the predeparture phase of migration to inform migrant women and girls about the SRH risks they may encounter and to provide information and resources to support their SRH throughout their journey. Special attention should be directed towards trying to reach girls and women who will travel with smugglers.

New Migration’s Gordian Knot: Mexico and the Caravans of the Northern Triangle of Central America

Migration processes in Mexico are varied and complex; the country sends migrants abroad and receives returnees in addition to migrants in transit and others wishing to settle there. In this sense, Mexico may be considered a global migration hub (a country of origin, reception, transit and destination). This chapter focuses on transit migration and the reception of migrants seeking asylum, with a particular focus on migrant caravans from the Northern Triangle of Central America (Guatemala, Honduras and El Salvador) between 2018 and 2020. These caravans, characterised by thousands of people (Kahn, 2018) fleeing their countries of origin due to situations of violence and threats to their personal security—in addition to economic factors—have posed challenges for Mexico’s domestic and foreign policies, especially in terms of its relations with the United States. In this context, we explore the actions and policies introduced to deal with migrants and refugees transiting Mexico, and the impact these have had. Taking mid-2018—the end of Enrique Peña’s presidential term—as the point of departure for our analysis, we examine Mexico’s migration policies more generally, together with the response of President Andrés Manuel López Obrador’s administration to Donald Trump’s immigration policies and the pressure the Trump administration exerted on Mexico to contain the flow of irregular migrants.

Entrenching the Problem? International Organizations and Their Engagement in Latin America to Address Violence: The Case of the European Union in the Northern Triangle

Abstract Latin America is the most violent region in the world. Yet, decades of political and financial investment by the international community have not had the desired results. Using the work of the European Union in the Northern Triangle of Central America as a case study, this article asks what explains this failure. Utilizing the conceptual framework of Complexity and Human System Dynamics, it argues that current policies actually entrench the pattern of conditions which lead to, and sustain, violence. It shows how, by reconceptualizing this problem using the concepts of Complexity, policies could be made more effective and sustainable.

Detained Migrants Need MH Care, COVID-19 Protection

Back to table of contents Previous article Next article ProfessionalFull AccessDetained Migrants Need MH Care, COVID-19 ProtectionBalkozar Adam, M.D., Shawn Singh Sidhu, M.D.Balkozar AdamSearch for more papers by this author, M.D., Shawn Singh SidhuSearch for more papers by this author, M.D.Published Online:15 Jun 2021https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.pn.2021.6.4AbstractAPA urges federal agencies to provide detained migrants and unaccompanied minors at the U.S.-Mexico border with protection from unsafe COVID-19 conditions and adequate access to health care.In April, more than 178,000 people were detained at the U.S.-Mexico border, the highest number of apprehensions in at least two decades, according to The New York Times. Of those, nearly 14,000 were unaccompanied children and adolescents.Prior to their departure from their home countries, 67% of Central American migrants experienced a murder, disappearance, or kidnapping of a relative, while 77% of children fleeing the Northern Triangle of Central America reported violence as the main reason for fleeing. At the same time, U.S. Customs and Border Protection and Border Angels reported that anywhere from 7,200 to 10,000 people have likely died trying to cross the border since 1994. Many migrants arrive at the U.S. border having undergone incomprehensible pre-migration and migration trauma. To then place people who have gone through so much in a detention center during a pandemic seems especially inhumane and dangerous.These vulnerable children and families must be protected, and it was out of deep concern for their well-being that APA’s Council on Children, Adolescents, and Their Families crafted a position statement urging the Department of Homeland Security (DHS) and Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE) to consider the supervised release of detainees or to identify alternative options for detainees charged with immigration violations. The statement further urges DHS and ICE to ensure detainees receive adequate screening, testing, and, when necessary, isolation for COVID-19. Without such actions, not only are children and adults in custody in danger, but so too are staff and the public at large.Detainees at the Southern border are photographed in March in a Customs and Border Protection temporary overflow facility in Donna, Texas.Photo courtesy of the Office of Rep. Henry Cuellar via APPre-migration, migration, and peri-migration trauma contribute to high levels of mental health issues in migrants. Yet, experts appointed by a federal judge reported that caregiver staffing at DHS’s detention facility for unaccompanied minors in Donna, Texas, was “profoundly inadequate,” according to CNN. Migrants and unaccompanied minors need to find support and acceptance. Without effective psychiatric support, these children are more likely to experience serious mental health issues in their futures.The court-appointed experts also reported that border-processing facilities for migrant children are “stretched beyond thin” and experiencing “profound overcrowding.” This conclusion is reinforced by the images taken at the facility in Donna, Texas. There, youth are crammed side by side in so-called “pods.” In such an environment, it is impossible to follow physical distancing guidelines to prevent the spread of COVID-19.Detainees should be allowed to follow the public health protocols meant to keep them safe from COVID-19. Migrants should know that they can be tested, receive treatment, and be isolated safely until they recover. Without such protocols in place, former detainees may not feel it is in their best interest to let government officials know they have tested positive for COVID-19. Ensuring these children and families receive high-quality, compassionate care is the first step to gaining their trust and helping them feel welcome in this country.These children and families present a low public safety risk. Ideally, they should be provided with supervised release, especially if they have family already in the country. There are also foster families willing to help unaccompanied children, and these families must be trained and prepared to welcome them into their homes.Steps must be taken to protect these individuals, who may be from underserved groups that have been disproportionately impacted by the pandemic. The children and families detained at the border deserve a humane solution to the harrowing situation they are experiencing. ■APA’s position statement is posted here.Balkozar Adam, M.D., is a member of APA’s Council on Children, Adolescents, and Their Families and a clinical professor of psychiatry at the University of Missouri.Shawn Singh Sidhu, M.D., is a member of APA’s Council on Children, Adolescents, and Their Families and an associate professor at the University of California, San Diego. ISSUES NewArchived

Family separation and transnational fathering practices for immigrant Northern Triangle families

AbstractWe utilize insights from previous qualitative research to explore fathering among immigrant fathers from El Salvador, Guatemala, and Honduras (the Northern Triangle of Central America). We present a conceptual model of transnational fathering practices in order expand beyond common cultural frameworks that are used to examine within‐group differences for Latino fathers. We describe four key practices of transnational fathering: (1) negotiation of illegality, (2) providing from the shadows, (3) maintenance of transnational family networks, and (4) communication with mobile families via information technology. This model can expand our understanding of and practice with immigrant and refugee families who live between and within multiple national borders.

Effects of Violence on Trauma among Immigrant Women from Central America

Abstract The purpose of the study was to explore the effects of violence on trauma among forced-immigrant women from the northern triangle of Central America (NTCA) resulting from direct and indirect violence in their country of origin and during the migratory journey through Mexico. In trauma theory the concept of compounding stressors is an important framework for understanding aspects of human development, especially among low-socioeconomic-status and oppressed populations. Authors hypothesized that violence would have an impact on trauma and conducted interviews with 108 women ages 18 to 65 from the NTCA who traveled by land across Mexico before entering the United States. A survey instrument captured demographic information and types of violence experienced in the home country and during the migratory journey. A standardized screening tool was used to measure trauma symptoms. A hierarchical regression model for trauma was entered in the following order: (a) demographics and (b) violence. Violence was found to be a significant predictor for trauma. Findings suggest that having experienced violence in the country of origin and through the migratory journey had a powerful role in predicting trauma symptoms among immigrant women from the NTCA.

Assessing the Effects of COVID-19 in Prisons in the Northern Triangle of Central America

ABSTRACT This article examines the impact of COVID-19 on penitentiary systems in the Central American countries of Honduras, El Salvador, and Guatemala (the Northern Triangle). Despite similar conditions in terms of crowding, lack of personal protective equipment, and infrastructure deficiencies, the neighboring countries have implemented distinctly different approaches to managing their incarcerated populations. In Honduras, in recognition of the elevated risks to certain inmates, nearly 2,000 prisoners were released in the early stages of the contagion. In El Salvador, President Bukele capitalized on the COVID crisis to implement curfews and national lockdowns to ensure conditions approaching martial law, declaring extreme security steps to address gang violence, while claiming incarcerated gang leaders were behind the increased violence. In Guatemala, the President Giammattei, a medical doctor, recognized prisons as epicenters of focus for reducing transmission rates and quickly advanced plans to contain a much larger outbreak. Using data collected from public media sources and in-depth qualitative interviews with prison administrators and staff, we provide a descriptive overview of the COVID impacts in these countries and consider possible longer-term prison policy implications.

Talking to Migrants: Invisibility, Vulnerability, and Protection

ABSTRACT Individuals and families are being displaced from the Northern Triangle of Central America by structural and physical violence. Clandestine migration increases the invisibility of forced migrants and makes them difficult to access for researchers. Gatekeepers perceive or depict forced migrants as vulnerable populations and often deny investigators access to them, arguing that traumatised people should not be asked to retell their stories and be revictimised. The growing literature on research participation suggests that individuals categorised as vulnerable often decide to collaborate in studies, because they welcome the opportunity to talk about their experience to an empathetic listener and to help improve policies and services. Immediate distress produced by revisiting painful moments in life often dissipates quickly and is outweighed by the benefits of research participation, such as feelings of catharsis and a sense of acknowledgement and purpose. When gatekeepers deny investigators access to vulnerable population groups, they preclude them from autonomously deciding whether to grant or withhold informed consent and from exercising their right to participate in research. Their invisibilities and silences render migrants more susceptible to human rights violations. Taking protection seriously means widening the research participation of vulnerable individuals.

Lo humanitario en la migración en tránsito por México ¿Por qué es necesario?

El subsistema migratorio entre el Triángulo Norte de Centroamérica, México y los Estados Unidos se conforma por un conjunto de relaciones de diversa índole en donde lo humanitario es un recurso necesario para la defensa y protección de los derechos humanos de los migrantes irregulares en tránsito por México. Acorde con ello, el objetivo de esta investigación es comprender desde la disciplina de Relaciones Internacionales la vinculación entre las migraciones y lo humanitario, así como conocer sus límites en un contexto profundamente politizado y dominado por los Estados Unidos.

専制化の兆しを見せる中米･北部3カ国（NTCs）

専制化の兆しを見せる中米･北部3カ国（NTCs）

O desolador cenário migratório do Triângulo Norte da América Central: limites e perspectivas no âmbito humanitário

O presente estudo propõe uma análise sobre a denominada caravana de migrantes, originária do Triângulo Norte da América Central, composto por El Salvador, Honduras e Guatemala, que testemunha uma das maiores crises humanitárias do século XXI. Os fluxos migratórios, sobretudo de menores desacompanhados, caracterizam-se por deslocados forçados, devendo ser reconhecidos como refugiados e não migrantes econômicos, como vem ocorrendo na prática nas fronteiras de destino, pelo México. O objeto de estudo se utilizará do referencial teórico do sociólogo Manuel Castells para pensar a influência dos sistemas de redes interligados que geram o processo de violência que acomete ao TNAC, e do filósofo Giorgio Agamben, na medida em que as vidas dos nacionais dos países em análise se encontram desprovidos de proteção e direitos. A modalidade de pesquisa é o estudo qualitativo, por meio da técnica de análise documental nacional e internacional, especialmente artigos de periódicos internacionais especializados sobre o tema. Evidencia-se que não há consenso sobre as bases políticas relacionadas à migração dos países de destino, altamente restritivas e punitivas, o que agrava a crise humanitária.

Crime and Output: Theory and Application to the Northern Triangle of Central America

This paper presents a structural model of crime and output. Individuals make an occupationalchoice between criminal and legal activities. The return to becoming a criminal isendogenously determined in a general equilibrium together with the level of crime andeconomic activity. I calibrate the model to the Northern Triangle countries and conductseveral policy experiments. I find that for a country like Honduras crime reduces GDP byabout 3 percent through its negative effect on employment indirectly, in addition to directcosts of crime associated with material losses, which are in line with literature estimates.Also, the model generates a non-linear effect of crime on output and vice versa. On average Ifind that a one percent increase in output per capita implies about 1/2 percent decline in crime,while a decrease of about 5 percent in crime leads to about one percent increase in output percapita. These positive effects are larger if the initial level of crime is larger.

Insuficiencia de la Unión Aduanera como motor de desarrollo económico en el triángulo norte centroamericano

Insuficiencia de la Unión Aduanera como motor de desarrollo económico en el triángulo norte centroamericano

Higher Education Regionalization in the Northern Triangle of Central America: Guatemala, El Salvador and Honduras

This paper uses Knight's (2013) regionalization of higher education framework - The Functional, Organizational and Political Approaches (FOPA) Model - to better understand the climate for regional engagement between higher education institutions (HEIs) in the Northern Triangle (NT) of Central America: El Salvador, Guatemala, and Honduras. The NT region is mired in a variety of economic, social and political challenges that have contributed to mass migration north to Mexico and the United States. We contend that higher education can contribute to the future development of the region. One approach to explore the potentional of higher education engagement is to examine the level of collaboration between institutions within the region, between the NT and the greater Central America region and with external partners such as the United States and the European Union. While we argue that regional partnerships rely heavily on North-South collaborations, we also contend that the conditions exist in Central America for further development of a more integrated higher education community.