Northern Limpopo Province Research Articles

Vulnerability and Adaptation to Flood Hazards in Rural Settlements of Limpopo Province, South Africa

Climate change has increased the frequency of extreme weather events such as heavy rainfall leading to floods in several regions. In Africa, rural communities are more vulnerable to flooding, particularly those that dwell in low altitude areas or near rivers and those regions affected by tropical storms. This study examined flood vulnerability in three rural villages in South Africa’s northern Limpopo Province and how communities are building resilience and coping with the hazard. These villages lie at the foot of the north-eastern escarpment, and are often exposed to frequent rainfall enhanced by orographic factors. Although extreme rainfall events are rare in the study area, we analyzed daily rainfall and showed how heavy rainfall of short duration can lead to flooding using case studies. Historical floods were also mapped using remote sensing via the topographical approach and two types of flooding were identified, i.e., those due to extreme rainfall and those due to poor drainage or blocked drainage channels. A field survey was also conducted using questionnaires administered to samples of affected households to identify flood vulnerability indicators and adaptation strategies. Key informant interviews were held with disaster management authorities to provide additional information on flood indicators. Subsequently, a flood vulnerability index was computed to measure the extent of flood vulnerability of the selected communities and it was found that all three villages have a ‘vulnerability to floods’ level, considered a medium level vulnerability. The study also details temporary and long-term adaptation strategies/actions employed by respondents and interventions by local authorities to mitigate the impacts of flooding. Adaptation strategies range from digging furrows to divert water and temporary relocations, to constructing a raised patio around the house. Key recommendations include the need for public awareness; implementation of a raft of improvements and a sustainable infrastructure maintenance regime; integration of modern mitigations with local indigenous knowledge; and development of programs to ensure resilience through incorporation of Integrated Development Planning.

Claudia Abatino: Exploitation and Management of Animal Resources During the Middle Iron Age, Northern Limpopo Province, South Africa

Claudia Abatino: Exploitation and Management of Animal Resources During the Middle Iron Age, Northern Limpopo Province, South Africa

Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene Vulnerability among Rural Areas and Small Towns in South Africa: Exploring the Role of Climate Change, Marginalization, and Inequality

Access to water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH)—including drainage-services—is essential for public health and socio-economic development, but access remains inadequate and inequitable in low- to middle-income countries such as South Africa. In South Africa, rural areas and small towns generally depend on a limited and climate-sensitive economic base (e.g., farming), and they have a limited capacity and are located in areas where transport challenges can increase WASH access risks. Climate change shifts hydrological cycles, which can worsen WASH access and increase susceptibility to the interlinked impacts of droughts and flooding in already vulnerable regions. We adopted a transdisciplinary approach to explore the needs, barriers, and vulnerabilities with respect to WASH in rural areas and small towns in South Africa—using two case studies to explore climate risk and vulnerability assessment (CRVA) in one rural village in the northern Limpopo province and a small town in the Western Cape province. This holistic approach considered natural (environment and climate) and socio-economic (economic, social, governance, and political) factors and how they interplay in hampering access to WASH. Extreme weather events characterized by frequent and intense droughts or floods aggravate surface and groundwater availability and damage water infrastructure while threatening agriculture-dependent livelihoods. The lack of reliable transport infrastructure increases risks posed by flooding as roads to vital supplies are prone to damage. High inequality linked to rising unemployment and the Apartheid legacy of a segregated service delivery system result in inequitable access to WASH services. The intertwined ways in which natural elements and historical, social, economic, governance, and policy aspects are changing in South Africa increase WASH vulnerability in rural areas and small towns.

Non-invasive sampling of bats reflects their potential as ecological indicators of elemental exposure in a diamond mining area, northern Limpopo Province, South Africa

Bats have been proposed as reliable bioindicators for monitoring bioaccumulation of elements and chemicals in natural and transformed ecosystems. Non-invasive methods are becoming more popular as research moves away from destructive methodologies. We present the first concentrations of 23 elements in Mops condylurus and Tadarida aegyptiaca (Molossidae) fur and blood from an opencast diamond mine and reference area using inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS). Concentrations of B, K, Rb and Cd in the bats’ fur were significantly higher in the mining footprint compared to the reference area (P < 0.05). Other elements such as Zn and Hg were significantly higher in the blood of bats from the mining footprint than the reference area (P < 0.05), whereas Mn was significantly higher in the blood of bats from the reference area than from the mining footprint (P < 0.05). Sixteen of the 22 elements above the limit of detection, with the exception of Ba, were significantly higher in the fur samples than in the blood due to elements being incorporated over time into the fur as it grows, whereas blood reveals short-term exposure to elements. Concentrations of most of the elements were reasonably low except Al, Fe and Zn. In general, the element concentrations particularly in the fur samples were comparable with other international studies reporting elemental fur concentrations from anthropogenically impacted and natural areas. Fur and blood have the potential to be viable indicators of environmental toxicity, but research is required on toxic thresholds and physiological and ecological unknowns around element concentrations in bat tissues and organs.

Developing a Viable Cultural Heritage Tourism Site at the Tombs of the Masingo at Swongozwi: Lessons Drawn from the Muzibu-Azaala-Mpanga, Kasubi, Uganda

The Northern Limpopo Province of South Africa is characterized by a number of natural, environmental and cultural heritage sites, which could be developed into sustainable tourism sites. These sites could assist formerly disadvantaged communities improve on their livelihood options. This study covers the cultural heritage site of the tombs of the Masingo dynasty of the Vhavenda. The site is located in the Vhembe District of Limpopo Province, South Africa. The study used the model applied at the Baganda cultural heritage site at the Kasubi tombs in Uganda, where some Baganda kings (kabakas) are buried in what is known as the Muzibu-Azaala Mpanga. Historical critical analysis was applied to data collected through a qualitative literature study, key informant interviews, and site visits. The study found that, while Ugandans supported Kasubi being used for tourism purposes, the custodians of the Swongozwi site were not willing to make the site available for tourism development, or any other economic activities. Developing cultural heritage sites of indigenous African peoples should be informed by their attitudes to the protection of culture and identity, though it means that opportunities for poverty alleviation are missed. The result corroborated other studies conducted earlier amongst the Vhavenda.

Retreatability analysis of the Musina copper mine tailings in South Africa: an exploratory study

In recent times, the potential beneficial uses of abandoned mine sites have been recognised and acted upon through the retreatment of tailings in order to win minerals of interest still available in economically viable concentrations. The most notable benefit (although not usually factored in financially) is that, once the tailings have been removed, the land has a greater potential to be developed further. The main aim of this study was to investigate the contents of copper and potentially harmful elements in the tailings of the Musina mine, an abandoned Cu mine in the northern Limpopo Province, in order to assess environmental hazards and to provide a first estimate of the feasibility of future economic rehabilitation. The concept of reclaiming was here seen in a broad way and ranged from the reworking of tailings or other residues to residential and/or recreational use. To quantify the potential economic importance and impacts of the metal content of the tailings, geochemical analysis of samples from auger holes and resource modelling were employed. Neutral to slightly basic pH values and very low concentrations of arsenic and lead showed that acid drainage and toxic groundwater contamination (apart from Cu itself) would not be a concern. Three-dimensional (3D) and two-dimensional (2D) models were applied to estimate the resource potential of the tailings dump. The models revealed that residual Cu in the Musina mine tailings is currently at 8555 tonnes. Accordingly, going forward, we recommend a formalised geometallurgical study to assess the economic feasibility of extracting Cu, with a view to reworking the copper tailings dump. It is very important that this tailings dump be mined in future, in order to extract all Cu and ensure that the sterilised land (up to 95 ha) can be used for other purposes.

Malaria Vectors and Vector Surveillance in Limpopo Province (South Africa): 1927 to 2018.

Despite the annual implementation of a robust and extensive indoor residual spraying programme against malaria vectors in Limpopo Province (South Africa), significant transmission continues and is a serious impediment to South Africa’s malaria elimination objectives. In order to gain a better understanding regarding possible causes of this residual malaria, we conducted a literature review of the historical species composition and abundance of malaria vector mosquitoes in the Limpopo River Valley region of the Vhembe District, northern Limpopo Province, the region with the highest remaining annual malaria cases in South Africa. In addition, mosquito surveys were carried out in the same region between October 2017 and October 2018. A total of 2225 adult mosquitoes were collected using CO2-baited tent and light traps, human landing catches and cow-baited traps. Of the 1443 Anopheles collected, 516 were members of the An. gambiae complex and 511 An. funestus group. In the malaria endemic rural areas outside the Kruger National Park, one specimen each of An. gambiae s.s. and An. funestus and only three of An. arabiensis were collected. The latter species was abundant at a remote hot spring in the neighboring Kruger National Park. Eighteen other species of Anopheles were collected. Our survey results support the historical findings that An. arabiensis, the species widely held to be the prime malaria vector in South Africa, is a rare species in the malaria endemic Limpopo River Valley. The implications of the mosquito surveys for malaria transmission, elimination and vector control in northern Limpopo Province and neighboring regions are discussed.

Solar Powered Water Security: An Enabler for Rural Development in Limpopo South Africa

This paper describes how the rural development of a small village was enabled through the improvement of water security. The rural village of Gwakwani in the Northern Limpopo province of South Africa was entirely dependent on a diesel powered borehole pump for their water supply. The cost and unreliability of the diesel supply resulted in limited opportunity for the development and growth of the village. As a rural community development enabler, a solar-powered borehole pump was installed in the village, which enhanced the availability and reliability of the water supply to the community. A second solar-powered borehole pump was installed, which allowed the establishment of small-scale drip irrigation farming enhancing economic activity. This paper presents the feasibility for the installation of solar-powered water pumps in rural areas, showing its advantage over diesel-powered water pumps. It is shown how the availability of a reliable water supply increased the production of subsistence crops. This paper concludes with a justification for installing high-tech solar pumping systems as a catalyst for developing rural communities.

Anomalous geothermal gradients and heat flow in the Limpopo Province, South Africa: Implications for geothermal energy exploration

Abstract The crustal rocks of South Africa are generally regarded as too old and cold for utilisation of geothermal energy. However, demands for alternative energy and the introduction of new technology have instigated a number of research projects in this and surrounding countries. Higher than average heat flow and the occurrence of several thermal springs in the northern Limpopo Province suggest that this region is a potential target area. Geothermal measurements in the eastern part of the Province yield anomalously high rock temperatures, thermal gradients (up to 90 K/km) and heat flow (up to 200 mW m-2). The anomalies are attributed to deep-seated circulation of meteoric water that provides an effective mechanism for concentrating geothermal heat. Heat flow studies of this kind may reveal more extensive potential geothermal fields elsewhere in South Africa.

Actual and predicted prevalence of alcohol consumption during pregnancy in the WHO African Region.

To estimate the prevalence of alcohol consumption and binge drinking during pregnancy among the general population in the World Health Organization (WHO) African Region, by country. First, a comprehensive systematic literature search was performed to identify all published and unpublished studies. Then, several meta-analyses, assuming a random-effects model, were conducted to estimate the prevalence of alcohol consumption and binge drinking during pregnancy among the general population for countries in the WHO African Region with two or more studies available. Lastly, for countries with less than two studies or no known data predictions were obtained using regression modelling. The estimated prevalence of alcohol consumption during pregnancy among the general population ranged from 2.2% (95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.6-2.8%; Equatorial Guinea) to 12.6% (95% CI: 9.9-15.4%; Cameroon) in Central Africa, 3.4% (95% CI: 2.6-4.3%; Seychelles) to 20.5% (95% CI: 16.4-24.7%; Uganda) in Eastern Africa, 5.7% (95% CI: 4.4-7.1%; Botswana) to 14.2% (95% CI: 11.1-17.3%; Namibia) in Southern Africa, 6.6% (95% CI: 5.0-8.3%; Mauritania) to 14.8% (95% CI: 11.6-17.9%; Sierra Leone) in Western Africa, and 4.3% (95% CI: 3.2-5.3%; Algeria) in Northern Africa. The high prevalence of alcohol consumption and binge drinking during pregnancy in some African countries calls for educational campaigns, screening and targeted interventions for women of childbearing age.

Secondary School Learners’ Response to the Teaching of Evolution in Limpopo Province, South Africa

One of the major causes of the problems affecting evolution education is a lack of acceptance of this concept, particularly by some people who have strongly entrenched religious beliefs. This paper reports on a section of a study which explored the influence of the beliefs of learners in some secondary schools from the Vhembe District in the northern Limpopo Province, South Africa, on the teaching and learning of biological evolution. A questionnaire was administered to Grade 12 learners studying life sciences to which 348 responded. Data were analysed to provide descriptive and inferential data for analysis. Findings indicated moderate acceptance of evolution by the learners. Some of the factors which showed an association with learners’ acceptance included: learners’ religious beliefs, age and the time since they had first heard of evolution. Although some learners experienced conflict between their religious beliefs and evolution, the findings showed that most were willing to learn about it.

Refitting evidence for the stratigraphic integrity of the Kudu Koppie Early to Middle Stone Age site, northern Limpopo Province, South Africa

Stone Age sites that demonstrate long sequences of occupation that span the Earlier through to the Later Stone Age are uncommon in southern Africa. The site of Kudu Koppie, in the Mapungubwe National Park of Limpopo Province, South Africa has evidence for extended and intense occupation by prehistoric populations in the context of a talus slope deposit adjacent to the Koppie itself. This paper describes the use of refitting of late Earlier Stone Age (ESA) and Middle Stone Age (MSA) lithics to address issues of stratigraphic integrity and taphonomy in a slope deposit context. Specifically, it is shown that approximately 80% of all refits fall with a vertical separation of between 0 and 10 cm. It is concluded that lithics associated with Kudu Koppie have not been greatly affected by post-depositional disturbances and therefore the material represents the general discard patterns of groups occupying the site between the late ESA and MSA periods. As such, this study provides additional evidence for earlier interpretations of the stratigraphic integrity of archaeological deposits at the site.

Regional Interpretation of Aeromagnetic Data for Groundwater Exploration in Capricorn District, Limpopo, South Africa

The study area is located in the northern Limpopo Province of South Africa. The aim of the study was to identify groundwater targets that could assist in improving the quality of life of rural communities. Airborne magnetic data was interpreted to identify dykes, lineaments and magnetic sources that could control groundwater occurrences. The length, parallelism of magnetic lineaments in some parts of the area suggests emplacement under tensional stress field along pre-existing zones of weakness. Lineaments extracted from the airborne magnetic data and satellite imagery data were superimposed on drainage lines to investigate the relative importance of structural features controlling the distribution of surface water and groundwater. In addition, normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) was used in identifying areas of vegetation banding, which enable inference of fracture zones and high moisture content in the soil. The study shows that the northern and central eastern parts of the study area are more prospective for groundwater occurrence, while the southern and south-western parts of the project area are dry with no surface manifestation of groundwater. Integration of lineaments derived from aeromagnetic data and Landsat imagery as well with the NDVI was able to identify areas with a potential for groundwater occurrence at a regional scale.

The Sexual Economy, Gender Relations and Narratives of Infant Death on a Tomato Farm in Northern South Africa

Based on an extended case study of a large-scale tomato farm in northern Limpopo province, the paper examines how the restructuring of agriculture transforms the sexual economy through shifts in the composition of labour and management practices on farms in this area. The employment of Zimbabwean migrants, rather than relatively permanent Venda families, suggests a potentially greater variety of people participating in the sexual economy. While families as units of employment have declined, black supervisors increasingly serve as a primary locus of coercion on the farm and in the sexual economy. The monetization of erstwhile paternalistic services places pressure on women to earn income however they can, including transactional sex. Contested interpretations over the causes of infant deaths on the farm, in the form of hygiene, blood-mixing and infanticide, provide an ethnographic framework for a deeper analysis of the sexual economy and its social effects. While the sexual economy presents opportunities for women to increase their income, it also exposes them to the risks of HIV/AIDS and unwanted pregnancies, resulting in contradictory implications for the status of women on farms.

Prepared core reduction at the site of Kudu Koppie in northern South Africa: temporal patterns across the Earlier and Middle Stone Age boundary

Kudu Koppie is a stratified late Earlier Stone Age and Middle Stone Age archaeological site located in the northern Limpopo Province of South Africa. The prepared core reduction strategies are described and temporal trends across the ESA–MSA boundary are presented. The prepared cores and endproducts of Kudu Koppie suggest that both the late ESA and MSA toolmakers employed the Levallois Volumetric Concept, but they often exploited a nodule's natural convexities and form. The MSA toolmakers used a greater variety of prepared core methods and more intensively exploited cryptocrystalline and microcrystalline nodules, the scarcity of which may have resulted in a more “formalized” application of the Levallois Volumetric Concept. These observations are considered within the context of human behavioural evolution.

Site formation at Kudu Koppie: A late Earlier and Middle Stone Age site in northern Limpopo Province, South Africa

In the Mapungubwe National Park, near the confluence of the Shashe and Limpopo Rivers along South Africa's northernmost borders with Botswana and Zimbabwe, the site of Kudu Koppie is characterized by three lithologically and archaeologically distinct Stone Age units. From bottom to the top, these units are: (1) the Lower Kudu Koppie Unit (LKKU), which includes large tools such as handaxes, picks and cleavers, characteristic of a late Earlier Stone Age phase; (2) the Middle Kudu Koppie Unit (MKKU), which contains bifacially retouched points characteristic of a Middle Stone Age (MSA) industry; and (3) the Upper Kudu Koppie Unit (UKKU), which has sporadic segments and other tools characteristic of the Later Stone Age (LSA). A refitting and nodule analysis, which matches lithic pieces based on microscopic similarities in colour, texture, and other visible characteristics, demonstrates that site formation processes have caused some vertical displacement of material within, but not between the LKKU and MKKU. Within the national park, the Kudu Koppie sandstone outcrop is unusual in that it has an overhanging structure, which undoubtedly contributed to the initial formation and eventual preservation of the archaeological deposits. This paper presents several lines of evidence indicating that stratigraphic integrity at Kudu Koppie has been preserved and that the three horizons are in primary or near-primary context.

An unsettled belonging: Zimbabwean farm workers in Limpopo Province, South Africa

The emplacement of displaced Zimbabweans depends on the particular political economies and the modes of belonging operating at the sites at which they find themselves. This is shown by examining the situation of Zimbabweans working or seeking work on commercial farms in northern Limpopo Province, South Africa, in the border zone with Zimbabwe. As Zimbabweans flee their country in part to find a cash currency that has more value than the Zimbabwean dollar, their Zimbabwean citizenship gives them a particular symbolic currency in these jobs. Many of the border zone farmers are keen to employ them as their desperation for work typically predisposes them to work harder and often for lower wages than South Africans. Yet this latter currency is also shaped by public debates and institutional practices regarding ‘Zimbabweans’ in the wider political economy of South Africa, which in turn inform the circulation, conditions, and vulnerabilities of these Zimbabweans on the farms.

Historical Justice and Socio-Economic Development: Tensions in South Africa's Land Resolution Programme

This study of the land restitution process and the return of, or compensation for, land taken for racial reasons since 1913, explores how the South African ANC government balances the search for economic growth and undoing historical and social injustices underpinned by efforts to balance universal citizenship with recognition of difference. Land restitution, the third leg of South Africa's land reform, has entered a critical phase, with the planned restoration of hundreds of highly developed commercial farms in Limpopo Province to claimant communities in the face of substantial landowner resistance and government over-commitment. The combination of productive land, substantial export revenues, pervasive restitution claims and past disappointments has led the government to embrace a new model of restitution. Successful claimant communities will form a joint venture company with a private entrepreneur and with a small share reserved for farm workers. This new modified business model raises a series of fundamental questions about how the South African government balances its responsibility for providing economic and social development while achieving social justice. A related question is how it equalises the three sources of inequality: race, gender and class. The paper, based upon fieldwork in northern Limpopo Province, analyses these emerging tensions.

WHITE FARMERS’ DEALINGS WITH LAND REFORM IN SOUTH AFRICA: EVIDENCE FROM NORTHERN LIMPOPO PROVINCE

ABSTRACTCompleting restitution, a key element of South Africa's land reform programme, entails government acquisition of white‐owned farms. Some white farmers are willing to sell and consequently the government has paid them full market‐related compensation. Others, however, refuse to sell, a right they have under the terms of the willing‐seller, willing‐buyer principle to which the government has committed itself. Why white farmers refuse to sell, even when compensation is on offer, is poorly understood. This paper therefore draws on qualitative research concerning white farmers in the Levubu area of northern Limpopo province to fill this gap in knowledge. The paper asks why white farmers are refusing to sell land to make way for restitution. It interrogates the material and symbolic factors affecting farmers’ action and demonstrates that the respondents’ justified their stance in relation to shifts in power in the agricultural sector, developments in land reform practice, and the respondents’ strong emotional bond to the land. In so doing, the paper calls into question the underlying (materialist) logic of the government's mode of land acquisition.

The Refitting of Chipped-Stone Artifacts as an Analytical and Interpretive Tool

Previous articleNext article No AccessThe Refitting of Chipped-Stone Artifacts as an Analytical and Interpretive ToolJack L. HofmanJack L. Hofman Search for more articles by this author PDFPDF PLUS Add to favoritesDownload CitationTrack CitationsPermissionsReprints Share onFacebookTwitterLinkedInRedditEmail SectionsMoreDetailsFiguresReferencesCited by Current Anthropology Volume 22, Number 6Dec., 1981 Sponsored by the Wenner-Gren Foundation for Anthropological Research Article DOIhttps://doi.org/10.1086/202754 Views: 15Total views on this site Citations: 22Citations are reported from Crossref Copyright 1981 The Wenner-Gren Foundation for Anthropological ResearchPDF download Crossref reports the following articles citing this article:Sheila Coulson, Claus Andreasen Uncovering their tracks: Intra-site behaviour at a Paleo-Inuit multiple dwelling site, Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 58 (Jun 2020): 101169.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaa.2020.101169Petr Neruda, Zdeňka Nerudová Technology of Early Szeletian leaf point shaping: a refitting approach, Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences 11, no.99 (Jun 2019): 4515–4538.https://doi.org/10.1007/s12520-019-00818-3Stance Hurst Territorial perspective on lithic caching: Insights from Garza Protohistoric (1450–1650 CE) caching strategies on the Southern Plains, USA, Quaternary International 492 (Oct 2018): 10–22.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2017.07.005Amèlia Bargalló, Marina Mosquera, Sergi Lozano In pursuit of our ancestors' hand laterality, Journal of Human Evolution 111 (Oct 2017): 18–32.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhevol.2017.06.001Elizabeth Foley, Caroline Spry, Nicola Stern Establishing the integrity and stratigraphic origin of stone artefact scatters on the surface of the Lake Mungo lunette in south-eastern Australia, Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 13 (Jun 2017): 547–557.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jasrep.2017.05.002Esther López-Ortega, Amèlia Bargalló, Arturo de Lombera-Hermida, Marina Mosquera, Andreu Ollé, Xosé Pedro Rodríguez-Álvarez Quartz and quartzite refits at Gran Dolina (Sierra de Atapuerca, Burgos): Connecting lithic artefacts in the Middle Pleistocene unit of TD10.1, Quaternary International 433 (Mar 2017): 85–102.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2015.09.026Zdeňka Nerudová, Petr Neruda Technology of Moravian Early Szeletian leaf point shaping: A case study of refittings from Moravský Krumlov IV open-air site (Czech Republic), Quaternary International (Nov 2015).https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2015.09.065M. O'Brien Evaluating the Contemporaneity of Households at the Eden‐Farson site, International Journal of Osteoarchaeology 25, no.55 (Jul 2013): 653–664.https://doi.org/10.1002/oa.2328Sigrid Staurset, Sheila Coulson Sub-surface movement of stone artefacts at White Paintings Shelter, Tsodilo Hills, Botswana: Implications for the Middle Stone Age chronology of central southern Africa, Journal of Human Evolution 75 (Oct 2014): 153–165.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhevol.2014.04.006T. Alexandra Sumner, Kathleen Kuman Refitting evidence for the stratigraphic integrity of the Kudu Koppie Early to Middle Stone Age site, northern Limpopo Province, South Africa, Quaternary International 343 (Sep 2014): 169–178.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2014.04.017Telmo Pereira, Henrique Matias, Francisco Almeida, Nuno Bicho WITHDRAWN: Refitting stone-tools to understand site formation processes: the case of the Gravettian site of Terra do Manuel (Portugal), Journal of Archaeological Science (Sep 2013).https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jas.2013.09.005Jack L. Hofman, Shannon R. Ryan Refitting the Great Plains: A Long Distance Stone Tool Refit from Western Kansas, Plains Anthropologist 58, no.226226 (Apr 2014): 69–78.https://doi.org/10.1179/pan.2013.58.226.004Esther López-Ortega, Xosé Pedro Rodríguez, Manuel Vaquero Lithic refitting and movement connections: the NW area of level TD10-1 at the Gran Dolina site (Sierra de Atapuerca, Burgos, Spain), Journal of Archaeological Science 38, no.1111 (Nov 2011): 3112–3121.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jas.2011.07.011T. Alexandra Sumner Psychological components of middle paleolithic technology: The proceduralization of lithic core reduction, Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 30, no.33 (Sep 2011): 416–431.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaa.2011.04.003Stance Hurst, Eileen Johnson, Vance T. 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Andrews Sediment consolidation and archaeological site formation, Geoarchaeology 21, no.55 (Jan 2006): 461–478.https://doi.org/10.1002/gea.20114Steven R. James Monitoring Archaeofaunal Changes During the Transition to Agriculture in the American Southwest, KIVA 56, no.11 (Jul 2016): 25–43.https://doi.org/10.1080/00231940.1990.11758155 References, (Jan 1987): 557–575.https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-268566-8.50028-2 Jack L. Hofman Vertical Movement of Artifacts in Alluvial and Stratified Deposits, Current Anthropology 27, no.22 (Oct 2015): 163–171.https://doi.org/10.1086/203414