Northern Darfur Research Articles

Mapping and Monitoring Spatio-Temporal Patterns of Rainfed Agriculture Lands of North Darfur State, Sudan, Using Earth Observation Data

Rainfed agriculture in Northern Darfur is influenced by erratic seasonal and decadal rainfall patterns and frequent droughts. Understanding the spatio-temporal variation in rainfed agriculture is crucial for promoting food security, socio-economic stability and protecting the vulnerable ecosystem. This study aimed to investigate the spatio-temporal dynamics of rainfed agriculture in North Darfur State from 1984–2019 using multitemporal Landsat observation data. Using the random forest technique, the multitemporal images were classified into common land use/land cover classes and rainfed agriculture on goz (sandy) and wadi (seasonal river) lands. Overall accuracies were assessed using a confusion matrix. Overall accuracies were assessed using a confusion matrix has ranging between 94.7% and 96.9%, while the kappa statistics were greater than 0.90. The results showed that the high spatial variability in goz land used for rainfed agriculture increased of (889,622.46 ha) over 1994–1999, while it decreased (658,568.61 ha) over 2004–2009 south of the 232.9 mm isohyet. Rainfed cultivation of wadi lands expanded significantly of (580,515.03 ha) over 2014–2019 and decreased (182,701.8 ha) over 1994–1999, especially in the 362.8–477.2 mm isohyets (beyond the climate-adapted 500 mm isohyet agronomic dry limit). These spatial trends need further investigation as they may exacerbate both regional land degradation and disputes among farmers over scarce wadi lands. This study provides essential spatial data which are lacking owing to ongoing conflicts; this can help decision-makers formulate sustainable land use monitoring systems.

Land Suitability and Characterization Study of Soils, Natural Vegetation Cover in Wahat Elnukhila area, Northern Darfur State, Sudan

This study was conducted in the Wahat Elnukhila area, about 600 km northeast of El-fashier town, northern Darfur State, to produce broad–base data on the geographical distribution of soils, characterization of soils using some soil indicators (ECe, pH and SAR), explore the natural land cover and evaluate the soil suitability for agricultural activities in the study area. The study area covers (20000 feddans). This research was based on the data and information extracted from the soil survey, remote sensed landsat, Enhanced Thematic Mapper (ETM+) images dated 2018, in addition to field observation aided by GPS receivers and geographic information system were used to generate soil map in the study area. By using the American soil classification system (FAO, 1990 and 2006) study area may be classified into three units, the total area of the three units and natural vegetation cover decreased in the following order: unit1 (12734 feddans) > unit 2 (3994 feddans) > unit 3 (3272 feddans), green covers as a result of the availability of quantities of ground and surface water, which distinguishes it from the rest of the surrounding desert lands. The predominant vegetation cover is Imperata cylindrica (halfa), Tamarix (Tarfa), phragmites (communist)“ Alboes”, Citrullus Colocynthis (Hanzal), Ischaemum muticum and p. dactylifera (date palm). Regarding soil texture, drainage, soil depth, and fertility status for units 1, unit 2, and unit 3, can be described as follows: sandy to loamy sand, well-drained, shallow and low fertile, coarse texture to moderate, moderately drained, shallow to moderate and low fertile, gravelly surface, moderatly drained, shallow to moderate and very low fertile respectively. Soil analysis reveled that there was high inherent risk of soil salinity and sodicity, especially unit 1. In general, the result showed that there were clear aspects of wind erosion represented as large areas affected by the sand encroachment form of crescent dunes and rocks interspersed with hills and plateaus. Furthermore, soils of the targeted area were formed from the accumulation of creeping and portable aeolian sands. The research site lies in the southeastern part of the border triangle between Sudan, Egypt, Libya and Chad, which is severely affected by wind erosion because the site was bare, open with no wind barriers or shelter belts, also this area falls under the sand moving winds of the Sahara. These are the northerly winds that prevail in Northern Darfur State. Furthermore, the prevalent climatic conditions including high temperature, rainless area and relatively high wind speed are conducive to high wind erosion. The area in danger unless serious measures carried out to reduce wind erosion. The area has very low potential suitability for agriculture. The study area was rich in wild life such as deer, rabbits, birds, many insects and snakes.

Socio-demographic relationships and management regimes on use of Frundu as fermented famine food in urban Northern Darfur in Sudan

Frundu, which in a local term in Darfur for fermented seeds of roselle (Hibiscus sabdariffa L.), is a traditional Sudanese food often used as a meat substitute during famine times. The objective of this study was to assess the relationships between socio-demographic and management regimes on the use of Frundu as a food security commodity in urban Darfur in Sudan. A survey involving 140 respondents was conducted in El-Fashir city markets, where Frundu is a popular commodity in Darfur markets. A semi-structured questionnaire and Chi square analysis were used. It was found that the period of fermentation of Frundu ranged from 3 to 7 days, depending on seasonal temperature. The storage period of Frundu was on average one year. Over 55% of the respondents acknowledged Frundu as critical a coping strategy when famine struck Darfur and the majority of respondents were familiar with Frundu. Frundu is becoming less popular in Darfur for several reasons; including difficulty in obtaining Roselle seeds, competition from the cheapest food items especially during non-famine time; and lack of familiarity with Frundu among young generations. To boost its production, processing and utilisation, farmers should be encouraged to increase its cultivation particularly because it is an important cash crops in Sudan.

Phylogeography of the House Bunting complex: discordance between species limits and genetic markers

Emberiza striolata has traditionally been viewed as a single polytypic species, but recent taxonomic reviews of its morphology, vocalizations and genetic data have led to the recommendation that two species be recognized within this complex, the House Bunting Emberiza sahari in the west, and the Striolated Bunting Emberiza striolata (including the subspecies Emberiza striolata saturiator and Emberiza striolata ‘jebelmarrae’) in the east of the range. However, reportedly intermediate birds have been described from northern Darfur, Sudan, and the Ennedi Massif, northeast Chad, bringing the two-species hypothesis into question. Here, we attempt a more comprehensive geographic sampling of all taxa of E. sahari and E. striolata, and we report the results of an examination of purported intermediate specimens, as well as the re-examination of the long type series of the controversial taxon Emberiza striolata ‘jebelmarrae’ described from western Sudan. Our results confirm a marked east–west divergence in the House Bunting complex based on two mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) markers, but surprisingly reveal that samples of E. striolata ‘jebelmarrae’ cluster with the western clade, whereas their morphology is clearly allied with that of other populations in the eastern clade. However, our analysis suggests that all of the specimens believed to be intermediate in morphology can be categorically placed with other examples of the western clade (E. sahari). At present, it is impossible to definitively explain the phylogenetic position of E. striolata ‘jebelmarrae’, but we hypothesize that the paraphyly in mtDNA is the result of introgression during the initial phase of secondary contact, and does not impinge on the decision to recognize two species. Complex spatio-temporal population patterns caused by late Pleistocene climate changes might have led to multiple secondary contact events between the eastern and western clades.

A Comparative Analysis of Multidimensional Poverty in Sudan and South Sudan

AbstractThis paper assesses multidimensional poverty in Sudan and South Sudan. We use the National Baseline Household Surveys of 2009 to measure poverty incidence in education, consumption, access to public assets and possession of private assets across these two countries. We differentiate between children aged 6 to 14 years and adults aged 15 years or older. We apply a counting method for measuring multidimensional poverty at the individual level and perform dominance tests to check for the robustness of the poverty comparisons. Our findings show regional and sub‐population differences in the unidimensional and multidimensional poverty status of people in both countries. Poverty in Sudan is generally less severe than in South Sudan, with a pattern showing (1) lesser unidimensional incidence of poverty and (2) lower multidimensional poverty indices and prevalence, but similar breadth, both for adults and children. This pattern also points towards Khartoum and Western Equatoria as the states with the least poverty, and Northern Darfur, and Warap as the states with the greatest poverty, both for adults and children, in Sudan and South Sudan, respectively. Policy intended at reducing poverty in each of the two countries should recognize the poverty profile differences across age groups, geographical areas and dimensions.

Multidimensional Poverty in Sudan and South Sudan

This paper assesses multidimensional poverty in Sudan and South Sudan. We use the National Baseline Household Surveys (NBHS) of 2009 to measure poverty incidence in education, consumption, access to public assets and possession of private assets across these two countries. We differentiate between children/teenagers aged six to fourteen years and adults aged fifteen years or older. We apply a counting method for measuring multidimensional poverty at the individual level and perform dominance tests to check for the robustness of the poverty comparisons. Our findings show regional and sub-population differences in the unidimensional and multidimensional poverty status of people in Sudan and South Sudan. Poverty in Sudan is generally less severe than in South Sudan, with a pattern showing (i) lesser unidimensional incidence of poverty; (ii) lower multidimensional poverty indices and prevalence, but similar breadth, in Sudan than in South Sudan, both for adults and children. This pattern also points towards Khartoum and Western Equatoria as the states with the least poverty, and Northern Darfur, and Warap as the states with the greatest poverty, both for adults and children, in Sudan and South Sudan, respectively. Policy intended at reducing poverty in each of the two countries should recognize the poverty profile differences across age groups, geographical areas and dimensions.

Development and application of a drought risk index for food crop yield in Eastern Sahel

Drought is a common characteristic of the African Sahel whose agricultural productivity has been notoriously varying and declining as a result of this natural hazard. In this study, reasonably adequate climatic and food crop data for Sudan have been used to illustrate a straightforward method for assessing the recent past and within-season drought risk to sorghum and millet yields in Eastern Sahel. A drought risk index (DRI), which incorporates the drought occurrence frequency, duration, severity and areal extent in addition to the coping capacity and the production level, has been able to capture the large-scale droughts that induced crop failure and famines in the region during the recent history. Over 1970–2006, the drought risk was manifest in 15–21 years for sorghum and in 12–20 years for millet. In these particular years, the index is capable of explaining ∼52–69% and ∼32–66% of the variations in the regional states’ yields of the two major food crops, respectively. There is a co-existence between the drought risk years and the warm events of El Niño – Southern Oscillation (ENSO). The results indicate clearly that drought conditions are capable of putting the crop yield at risk of suppression. On the state scale, the highest drought risk predominates in Northern Darfur on the average. Maximum DRI values of 47% for sorghum and 48% for millet occurred during the peak drought decade of the 1980s in the western part of the Eastern Sahel region. It is not hard to trace the low drought risk values for Gezira within the arid region to a large extent back to practised adaptation measure in the form of irrigation. On the regional scale, the maximum DRI was recorded in 1984 as 21% and 26% respectively for sorghum and millet. Generally, lower relation between millet yield and DRI, though significant, dominates in the western part of Sahelian Sudan, likely due to the inherent adaptation of the crop to such adverse growing conditions. In view of the regional agricultural expansion, even the average irrigation coping capacity of sorghum farming dropped from 8.0% in the early 1970s to around 6.0% in the first half of the 2000s. The model is also shown to enable short-term prediction by informing knowledge of pre-harvest quantities of crop yield from easily accessible data. The outcome of this study thus assists in providing a basis for drought mitigation and planning of benefit to authorities in agriculture.

Integrated assessment of the environmental impact of an IDP camp in Sudan based on very high resolution multi-temporal satellite imagery

Population displacement due to armed conflicts, regional crises, or natural disasters often leads to large-scale settlements that impact the local environment. The specific dynamics of such semi-permanent settlements, comprising both the structural changes (to the extent of the camp, and the population density), and their wider impacts on the surroundings, require adaptive monitoring capacities. In areas where livelihoods and food security are highly dependent on natural resources, environmental deterioration can result in violent conflicts over access to, or control of, scarce natural resources, or in renewed migration of the population. Remote sensing, and in particular very high spatial resolution satellite imagery, can help determine the actual population dynamics, together with environmental changes in the surrounding areas. In an ex-post assessment using three time slices (2002, 2004, 2008) we assessed the changing environmental conditions and the resulting implications for human security and ecosystem integrity in the vicinity of a large internally displaced persons (IDP) camp in northern Darfur, Sudan. We used a Weighted Natural Resource Depletion index that integrates selected land use/land cover target classes and their relative importance for human security and/or ecosystem integrity by incorporating weightings assigned by experts to each of these classes. The results showed that the dramatic increase in the camp's population between June 2002 and May 2008 (from approximately 1200 to about 50,000 inhabitants) and areal extent (a growth of ~436%) was accompanied by a noticeable decrease in the area covered by single shrubs and small trees (~ −68%), in the area covered by patches of shrubs and trees (~ −34%), and in the area covered by grassland (~ −3%). Moreover, a marked expansion in small-scale farming was observed, especially into fertile wadi soils. Almost 45% of all grid cells (60m×60m) had experienced at least some degree of depletion of natural resources (i.e. woody vegetation, grassland, etc.) between 2002 and 2008. Major depletion was observed in the north-eastern and eastern parts of the camp in particular, while minor depletion occurred over almost all of the study area.

Geology and geophysics of the West Nubian Paleolake and the Northern Darfur Megalake (WNPL–NDML): Implication for groundwater resources in Darfur, northwestern Sudan

The recent delineation of a vastly expanded Holocene paleo-lake (the Northern Darfur Megalake which was originally mapped as the West Nubian Paleolake and here will be referred to as WNPL–NDML) in Darfur in northwestern Sudan has renewed hopes for the presence of an appreciable groundwater resource in this hyper-arid region of Eastern Sahara. This paleolake which existed within a closed basin paleo-drainage system might have allowed for the collection of surface water which was subsequently infiltrated to recharge the Paleozoic–Mesozoic Nubian Aquifer. However, the presence of surface exposures of Precambrian crystalline rocks in the vicinity of the paleolake has been taken as indicating the absence of a thick Paleozoic–Mesozoic sedimentary section capable of holding any meaningful quantity of groundwater. This work integrates surface geology and gravity data to show that WNPL–NDML is underlain by NE-trending grabens forming potential local Paleozoic–Mesozoic aquifers that can hold as much as 1120 km 3 of groundwater if the sedimentary rocks are completely saturated. Nevertheless, it is advised here that recharge of the Nubian aquifer under WNPL–NDML is insignificant and that much of the groundwater is fossil water which was accumulated during different geological times much wetter than today’s hyper-arid climate in Eastern Sahara. Excessive extraction will lead to quick depletion of this groundwater resource. This will result in lowering of the water table which in turn might lead to the drying out of the oases in the region which provide important habitats for humans, animals and plants in northern Darfur.

Earth observation (EO)-based ex post assessment of internally displaced person (IDP) camp evolution and population dynamics in Zam Zam, Darfur

During humanitarian crises, when population figures are often urgently required but very difficult to obtain, remote sensing is able to provide evidence of both present and past population numbers. This research, conducted on QuickBird time-series imagery of the Zam Zam internally displaced person (IDP) camp in Northern Darfur, investigates automated analysis of the camp's evolution between 2002 and 2008, including delineation of the camp's outlines and inner structure, employment of rule-based extraction for two categories of dwelling units and derivation of population estimates for the time of image capture. Reference figures for dwelling occupancy were obtained from estimates made by aid agencies. Although validation of such ‘on-demand’ census techniques is still continuing, the benefits of a fast, efficient and objective information source are obvious. Spatial, as well thematic, accuracy was, in this instance, assessed against visual interpretation of eight 200 m × 200 m grid cells and accuracy statistics calculated. Total user's and producer's accuracy rates ranged from 71.6% up to 94.9%. While achieving promising results with respect to accuracy, transferability and usability, the remaining limitations of automated population estimation in dynamic crisis situations will provide a stimulus for future research.

Assessing eco-scarcity as a cause of the outbreak of conflict in Darfur: a remote sensing approach

The conflict in Darfur, Western Sudan, is frequently represented in the media as a dispute over access to resources by competing communities. Environmental degradation is often cited as either a causal or a contributory factor to the outbreak of the conflict and its prolongation. In this paper, Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) data are used as a measure of ‘eco-scarcity’ to assess the notion that the outbreak of conflict was the result of competition for resources between communities. It is shown that there is no evidence in the vegetation mapping for a worsening of the ecological situation in Western and Northern Darfur states around the outbreak of the conflict. On the contrary, the years prior to the outbreak of the conflict experienced better than average vegetation growth in the context of the past 25 years.

Darfurian Livelihoods and Libya: Trade, Migration, and Remittance Flows in Times of Conflict and Crisis

Labor migration and commerce between Sudan and Libya have long been features of livelihoods in Darfur. This paper describes the importance of historical trade and migration links between Darfur and Libya, and provides a background to the political and economic situation in Libya which has influenced opportunities for Sudanese migrant workers. A case study of the situation of the Darfurian migrants in Kufra (an oasis and transnational trade hub in southern Libya) illustrates how the recent Darfur conflict has affected migration patterns from Darfur and remittance flows in the opposite direction. Official estimates of Darfurian migrant workers in Libya were unavailable but were estimated to be between 150,000 and 250,000. The closure of the national border between Sudan and Libya in May 2003, largely a result of insecurity in Darfur, stopped the traffic of migrant workers between northern Darfur and southern Libya (which prevented the onward travel to Sudan of several thousand migrants in Kufra), and curtailed the well-established trade routes, communications, and remittance flows. The current limited economic prospects for migrant workers in Libya, combined with the threat of detention, difficulties of return to Sudan, and loss of contact with and uncertainty about the fate of their families in Darfur, have created a sense of despair among many Darfurians. The paper concludes with a series of recommendations to improve the conditions of the Darfurian migrants in Libya, including an amnesty for illegal migrants, and also to ease the travel of migrants, promote communications between Libya and Darfur, and support the flow of remittances.

DEM‐optical‐radar data integration for palaeohydrological mapping in the northern Darfur, Sudan: implication for groundwater exploration

North‐western Sudan, as a part of the eastern Sahara, is among the driest places on earth. However, the region underwent drastic climatic changes through the alternation of dry and wet conditions in the past. During humid phases, when the rain was plentiful over a prolonged time period, the surface was veined by rivers and dotted by large lakes. The new Shuttle Radar Topography Mission data (SRTM ∼90 m) revealed a large endorheic drainage basin, which is centred by a large terminal palaeolake, in the northern Darfur State. The use of GIS methods allowed the delineation of the drainage basin and its associated palaeorivers. The SRTM data along with the Landsat (ETM+) and Radarsat‐1 images corroborate the presence of segments of palaeoshorelines associated with the palaeolake highstands. These constitute a convincing argument of the long‐term existence of a possible pre‐Holocene large water body in the region in the past. The remains of the highest palaeoshoreline have a constant altitude of 573±3 m asl. At its maximum extent, the mega Lake occupied an area of about 30 750 km2 (the same size as the Great Bear Lake, Canada's largest lake), which would have contained approximately 2530 km3 of water. This, ancestral lake, which we named the Northern Darfur Megalake (ND Megalake), represents indisputable evidence of the past pluvial conditions in the eastern Sahara. The discovered palaeoshorelines will have significant consequences for improving our knowledge of continental climate change and regional palaeohydorology, and should be taken into consideration in studies of past human habitation in the region. Much of the water carried by the Northern Darfur palaeorivers and the ND Megalake would have percolated into the underlying rocks feeding the Nubian Sandston aquifer. These findings show that the used approach of space‐data integration can help significantly in the groundwater exploration efforts in the Darfur region, where freshwater access is essential for refugee survival, and can be successfully adopted in other parts of Sudan and arid lands in general.

Camel Husbandry among Pastoralists in Darfur, Western Sudan

Introduction A summary is given of a study conducted during 2003 in the Darfur states of western Sudan. The study presents information about mainly nomadic camel owners, types of camels and other animals reared, camel herd structure, purpose of camel rearing, movement during the year, feeding, management and the economic aspects of camel husbandry. The camel (Camelus dromedaries, one-humped camel) in Darfur originated in Arab countries and was introduced to the Sudan. These camels are kept in nomadic systems in the semi-desert and savanna belt of Darfur, in association with sheep and goats. Camels produce milk, meat, wool, hair and hides and are used for riding, transport and cultivation. Nomadic Sudanese Arab tribes that own camels include Maalia, Mahria, Umm Jallol, Awlad Zaid and Bani Haiba. Other tribes of the Midob and Zaghwa also own camels. Nomadic Arab tribes and other tribes owning camels have entered Sudan through the west and north-western borders via northern Chad or southern Libya, reaching their ultimate destination at the River Nile. The problems facing camel production in Darfur states include shortage of water in desert areas, complicated inter-ethnic grazing access and diseases and parasites. In recent years these areas have been affected by drought and some areas of grazing land have been partially desertified; hence migratory herds of camels have penetrated southwards into the savannah zone for dry-season grazing. Moreover, the extension of crop farms has meant a reduction of available grazing land, which has led to serious problems culminating in the Darfur war starting in mid-2003. Arabian camels have become fully adapted to the desert and semi-desert regions of Sudan. The number of camels in the Sudan was 3.20 million (FAO 1999). The total number of camels in the three Darfur states is estimated as 759,000 of which 397,000 were in Northern Darfur, 287,000 in Western Darfur and 75,000 in South Darfur (Central Bureau of Statistics 2003). The Sudan famine of the mid-1980s caused social dislocation; many farmers and pastoralists were displaced and driven from the western provinces into urban feeding stations (Werner 1994). Similarly, the Darfur wars in 1989 and mid-2003 caused social dislocation in which most pastoralists were displaced and moved to urban areas. Hence the objectives of the present study were to estimate the socioeconomic performance of camel owners and to obtain information on camel management among the nomadic tribes of Darfur. Study Area and Methods The study was conducted from January to December 2003, mainly in South Darfur State in the extreme south-west of Sudan, an area of 139,800 sq. km between latitude 8[degrees]: 30-17[degrees]: 30 N and longitude 23[degrees]: 15-28[degrees] E. Some data from northern and western Darfur states were also included. The rainy season starts in May and continues until October, with most rain falling in July and August, and an annual mean of 400 mm (Nyala Meteorological Station 1961-2002). Temperatures reach a maximum of 42 [degrees] C in May and a minimum of 15[degrees]C in January. The rangeland is semi-desert in the north to treed savannah in the south. In recent years the area of rangeland has decreased, while the area under crops and non-agricultural activities has progressively increased. A questionnaire was used for discussions with groups of three to five camel owners, visiting Nyala livestock market at monthly intervals. Some owners were visited in their camps outside Nyala city. Records were also obtained from the towns of El Fasher and Kebkabiya (Northern Darfur State) and Sarf Umra (northern and western Darfur). Characteristics of Camel Owning Families Most of the camel owners were nomadic (77%). Due to the lack of mobile schools and the need for families to migrate, 79% of them were uneducated. Forty percent of the household heads had more than one wife, with an average household size of nine. …

Container contamination as a possible source of a diarrhoea outbreak in Abou Shouk camp, Darfur province, Sudan

Diarrhoea is one of the five major causes of death in an emergency setting and one of the three main causes of death in children (Curtis and Cairncross, 2003). In June 2004, an outbreak of shigellosis was confirmed in Abou Shouk camp in the Northern Darfur province of Sudan. As water testing showed no contamination, it was assumed that post-collection contamination was happening. The decision was taken to launch a programme of mass disinfection of all water containers in order to break the contamination cycle. Diarrhoea figures from the clinics showed a fall in cases following the cleaning campaign. It is extremely difficult to obtain good and statistically rigorous data in an emergency setting, the priority being to intervene rapidly to prevent further cases of diarrhoea. However, the results do appear to indicate that the disinfection programme has had an impact on the prevalence of bloody and watery diarrhoea.

The Rezaigat Camel Nomads of the Darfur Region of Western Sudan: From Co-Operation to Confrontation

The Rezaigat camel nomads live on the fringes of northern Darfur. They are part of the larger Rezigat tribe, the majority of whom are cattle nomads who occupy the southern part of the Darfur region. The Rezigat camel nomads are divided into five subclans: the Mahameed, the Mahriyya, the Iraigat, the Itaifat and Aulad Rashid. Each clan has its system of tribal leadership with an 'nazi' at the top of the administrative hierarchy (Waha locality records). In addition to these five major subclans, there are two smaller subclans, the Shattiyya and Mahadi who have no independent leadership structure. This report examines the settlement option for the Rezaigat camel nomads and concludes with some general remarks and policy recommendations.

"A Room of One's Own": Single Female Teachers Negotiating the Islamist Discourse in Sudan

“A Room of One’s Own”:Female Teachers Negotiating the Islamist Discourse in Sudan Karin Willemse In this article I will discuss how single female teachers in Darfur, West Sudan, negotiate their positions with reference to the Islamist moral discourse of the Sudanese government. This moral discourse seems to deny women the possibility of working. I base my argument mainly on anthropological research carried out in Kebkabiya, a small provincial town in northern Darfur, from 1990 to 1992 and in 1995.1 I conducted my research on market women and female teachers who were locally considered to belong to, respectively, the lowest and highest class of working women.2 Their experiences and opinions, particularly those of the single female teachers, are central to my argument here. My first stay in Kebkabiya was during a politically and socially turbulent period. A military coup in 1989 had put an end to the democratic government of the Sudan, which had come to power only in 1985. The coup leader, Lt. Omer el-Bashir, then aligned himself with the National Islamic Front (NIF) of Hassan al-Turabi.3 One of the main goals of the new government was the establishment of an Islamic state; that earned it the qualification "Islamist" or "Muslim fundamentalist."4 One way to attain the ideal of an Islamic state was to design a policy based on Islamic principles legitimated by a moral discourse that focused on the conduct of women in public life. For example, in 1991 the Khartoum State5 Public Order Act was implemented with the explicit goal of attaining segregation of women and men in public, particularly in the capital Khartoum. In Article 17 of the act, the working hours of [End Page 99] street vendors were restricted to five o'clock in the morning until five o'clock in the evening. Not coincidentally, the period between dusk and dawn is the peak time for poor women who fend for their families by selling food and drinks to passers-by. The act was enforced by the so-called kasha politics, or street cleaning campaigns.6 Professional women too were targeted. Shortly after the coup in June 1989, women in prestigious public positions were sent home for early retirement or fired. Professional women were also closely scrutinized when appearing in public. Those who were thought to wear too much makeup, perfume, or jewelry, or too tight, short, or colorful clothing were scolded, beaten up, or taken to the police station by predominantly elderly male vigilantes.7 Apart from controlling the conduct of women in public, the government also tried to interfere on the issue of marriage by launching the zawag el-kora, or "mass weddings." Large numbers of couples were married collectively at ceremonies organized and orchestrated by the government. The government also undertook the sponsoring of these weddings, in kind and money. Donations might consist of beds and furniture as part of the dowry, sums of money up to £S10,000,8 and in some cases even a plot of land to build a house on. The weddings were broadcast in order to advertise the government-subsidized marriages and to show that the government was seriously tackling social problems.9 Hale states that the mass weddings were a way to help poor people get married.10 However, the mass weddings were specifically brought to the attention of employees working in the bureaucracy or para-statal organizations. One such circular issued in September 1996 addressed 170 unmarried employees of the 204 working at the Sudan broadcasting station: Dear brothers, sisters, and colleagues, on behalf of the [Sudan TV] trade union and board of directors, I call upon all staffers to make up their minds and get married. . . . Those interested will apply within three months . . . with incentives for those who do so. They will be married en masse at a ceremony organized and financed by the institution. We would like to assure those who will join this blessed occasion, even by marrying for the second time, that they will receive considerable assistance that will help, Allah willing, in their future life. . . . Allah has blessed marriage [End Page 100] and in Islam marriage is considered the completion of the...

Bibliography

Bibliography

The Resilience of Households to Famine in El Fasher, Sudan, 1982–89

This paper examines issues related to famine resilience and describes the results of a survey of households who migrated from famine affected rural communities in Northern Darfur to the provincial capital, El Fasher, in western Sudan. It reveals that asset wealth did not enhance household resilience to famine; rather, the data indicate that households who reportedly practiced more numerous survival strategies before migrating to El Fasher were on the whole able to stay longer in their villages before migrating. The data also suggest that some households might have been better able to endure the deteriorating rural conditions by participating in intra-communal practices of sharing resources. An additional issue influencing the timing of migration to El Fasher is previous familiarity with the economic opportunities in the provincial capital.

The role of rural-rural migration as a survival strategy in the Sahelian zone of the Sudan ?

Taking the example of Burush, N Darfur, Sudan, the authors analyse the role of migration as a survival strategy in the desertification-stricken Sahelian zone. It is being argued that the rual-rual migration plays a greater role than the rual-urban migration among the Berti ethnic group of northern Darfur. Their high mobility within their own area is part of their traditional economic pattern for coping with aridity and high rainfall variability