Northern California Margin Research Articles

Sedimentology of seismo-turbidites off the Cascadia and northern California active tectonic continental margins, northwest Pacific Ocean

Abstract Holocene turbidites from turbidite channel systems along the active tectonic continental margins of the Cascadia subduction zone (offshore Vancouver Island to Mendocino Triple Junction) and the northern San Andreas Transform Fault (the Triple Junction to San Francisco Bay), have been analyzed for sedimentologic features related to their seismic origin. Centimeter thick silt/sand beds (turbidite base) capped by mud layers (turbidite tail) and interbedded with hemipelagic silty clay intervals with high biogenic content have been characterized by visual core descriptions, grain-size analysis, X-ray radiographs and physical properties. Along the northern California margin in upstream single tributary canyons and channels, most turbidites are uni-pulsed (classic fining up) whereas downstream below multiple tributary canyon and channel confluences, most deposits are stacked turbidites. Because each set of stacked turbidites has no hemipelagic sediment between each turbidite unit and each unit has a distinct mineralogy from a different tributary canyon, we interpret that a stacked turbidite is deposited by several coeval turbidity currents fed by multiple tributary canyons and channels with synchronous triggering from a single San Andreas Fault earthquake. The Cascadia margin is characterized by individual multi-pulsed turbidites that contain multiple coarse-grained sub-units without hemipelagic sediment between pulses. Because the number and character of multiple coarse-grained pulses for each correlative multi-pulsed turbidite is almost always constant both upstream and downstream in different channel systems for 600 km along the margin, we interpret that the earthquake shaking or aftershock signature is usually preserved, for the much stronger Cascadia (≥ 9 Mw) compared to weaker California (≥ 8 Mw) earthquakes, which result in upstream uni-pulsed turbidites and downstream stacked turbidites. Consequently, both the strongest (≥ 9 Mw) great earthquakes and downstream confluences cause multi-pulsed and stacked turbidites that are typical for seismo-turbidites generated by a single great earthquake. Along both margins, earthquake triggering and multi-pulsed or stacked turbidites become an alternative explanation for amalgamated turbidite beds in active tectonic margins and show that multiple grain-size pulses and reverse grading are not unique criteria for hyperpycnites, thalweg levee turbidites, or mini-basin margin turbidites. The analyses of the turbidites along the Cascadia and northern California margins reveal common sedimentologic characteristics of turbidites triggered by great earthquakes that can be used to distinguish seismo-turbidites in other active tectonic margins around the world.

Great earthquakes along the Western United States continental margin: implications for hazards, stratigraphy and turbidite lithology

Abstract. We summarize the importance of great earthquakes (Mw ≳ 8) for hazards, stratigraphy of basin floors, and turbidite lithology along the active tectonic continental margins of the Cascadia subduction zone and the northern San Andreas Transform Fault by utilizing studies of swath bathymetry visual core descriptions, grain size analysis, X-ray radiographs and physical properties. Recurrence times of Holocene turbidites as proxies for earthquakes on the Cascadia and northern California margins are analyzed using two methods: (1) radiometric dating (14C method), and (2) relative dating, using hemipelagic sediment thickness and sedimentation rates (H method). The H method provides (1) the best estimate of minimum recurrence times, which are the most important for seismic hazards risk analysis, and (2) the most complete dataset of recurrence times, which shows a normal distribution pattern for paleoseismic turbidite frequencies. We observe that, on these tectonically active continental margins, during the sea-level highstand of Holocene time, triggering of turbidity currents is controlled dominantly by earthquakes, and paleoseismic turbidites have an average recurrence time of ~550 yr in northern Cascadia Basin and ~200 yr along northern California margin. The minimum recurrence times for great earthquakes are approximately 300 yr for the Cascadia subduction zone and 130 yr for the northern San Andreas Fault, which indicates both fault systems are in (Cascadia) or very close (San Andreas) to the early window for another great earthquake. On active tectonic margins with great earthquakes, the volumes of mass transport deposits (MTDs) are limited on basin floors along the margins. The maximum run-out distances of MTD sheets across abyssal-basin floors along active margins are an order of magnitude less (~100 km) than on passive margins (~1000 km). The great earthquakes along the Cascadia and northern California margins cause seismic strengthening of the sediment, which results in a margin stratigraphy of minor MTDs compared to the turbidite-system deposits. In contrast, the MTDs and turbidites are equally intermixed on basin floors along passive margins with a mud-rich continental slope, such as the northern Gulf of Mexico. Great earthquakes also result in characteristic seismo-turbidite lithology. Along the Cascadia margin, the number and character of multiple coarse pulses for correlative individual turbidites generally remain constant both upstream and downstream in different channel systems for 600 km along the margin. This suggests that the earthquake shaking or aftershock signature is normally preserved, for the stronger (Mw ≥ 9) Cascadia earthquakes. In contrast, the generally weaker (Mw = or <8) California earthquakes result in upstream simple fining-up turbidites in single tributary canyons and channels; however, downstream mainly stacked turbidites result from synchronously triggered multiple turbidity currents that deposit in channels below confluences of the tributaries. Consequently, both downstream channel confluences and the strongest (Mw ≥ 9) great earthquakes contribute to multi-pulsed and stacked turbidites that are typical for seismo-turbidites generated by a single great earthquake. Earthquake triggering and multi-pulsed or stacked turbidites also become an alternative explanation for amalgamated turbidite beds in active tectonic margins, in addition to other classic explanations. The sedimentologic characteristics of turbidites triggered by great earthquakes along the Cascadia and northern California margins provide criteria to help distinguish seismo-turbidites in other active tectonic margins.

Paleoceanographic changes on the Farallon Escarpment off central California during the last 16,000 years

New benthic and planktic foraminiferal assemblage census data and Benthic Foraminiferal Oxygen Index (BFOI) values, previously published marine climate proxy data (stable isotopes and Ca/Cd), and unpublished results of total carbon, organic carbon, and calcium carbonate analyses of sediments recovered off central California on the Farallon Escarpment (1605 m water depth; 37°13.4′N, 123°14.6′W; core F-8-90-G21) document paleoceanographic changes during the latest Quaternary which reflect the intensity and source of North Pacific Intermediate Water (NPIW) and surface productivity. Accelerator mass spectrometry radiocarbon dates of both benthic and planktic species provide an excellent age-depth model for the last 16,000 years, covering the latest glacial, Bølling–Allerød, Younger Dryas, and early, middle, and late Holocene intervals. A Q-mode cluster analysis separated the benthic fauna into three clusters, one Pleistocene and two Holocene, whereas the planktic fauna was divided only into Pleistocene and Holocene clusters. Stable oxygen isotope values show an increase in water temperature of ∼1 °C from the late glacial to late Holocene and a change in faunal composition of the planktic assemblage implies surface waters warmed as well. A general trend of decreasing dissolved oxygen concentration from the Pleistocene (high oxic; 3.0–6.0+ ml/l O 2) to the Holocene (low oxic; 1.5–3.0 ml/l O 2) suggested by the BFOI and Cd/Ca data reflect decreased ventilation as the source of the NPIW shifted from the Sea of Okhotsk to the tropical east Pacific at ∼11,000 cal BP. The middle Holocene cooling reported in other central and northern California margin studies is not apparent in F-8-90-G21, which compares more favorably with studies from southern California and British Columbia. Total carbon and organic carbon values are highest in the Bølling–Allerød, early Holocene, and late Holocene. Similarly, calcium carbonate values are high in the Bølling–Allerød and peak in the early Holocene, but decrease significantly in the latest middle and late Holocene which coincides with a depauparate planktic foraminiferal fauna in the upper 60 cm (∼70000–0 cal BP) of the core and poor preservation of the benthic foraminiferal fauna at 40 cm (∼3000 cal BP). Decoupling is evident between the planktic and benthic faunal response to changing climatic conditions, with the surface-dwelling assemblage often leading the bottom-dwelling assemblage by several millennia.

Cooling upwelling regions along the California margin during the early Pliocene: evidence for a shoaling thermocline

The early Pliocene is the most recent time in Earth history when average global temperatures were warmer than they are today. Previous work has shown that coastal upwelling regions had a particularly strong response to early Pliocene warmth, with sea surface temperature records in the southern California margin indicating SST was 9-10°C warmer compared to today. Warmer SST in upwelling regions could have been an important factor in maintaining Pliocene warmth. However, the cause for the warmer conditions in upwelling regions and the transition to colder SST has remained elusive. We present alkenone derived SST estimates from a northern California margin location, ODP Site 1022 (40°N, 125°W, 1950m water depth), from the early Pliocene (4. 2-2.8 Ma). The 2.8°C cooling during this time interval is similar to that observed at two southern California margin sites (ODP Sites 1014 and 1012), indicating the three sites were responding to the same forcing. However, SST was only 3°C warmer than today at ODP Site1022 while the southern sites were 9-10°C warmer than today, thereby increasing the latitudinal temperature gradient along the California margin dramatically during the early Pliocene compared to today. This indicates that the tropical warm pool expansion during the early Pliocene was not felt along the Northern California margin. We quantified diatom assemblages at ODP Site 1022 to constrain changes in oceanographic conditions during early to middle Pliocene. The percent of diatoms indicative of subarctic waters is unchanged from 4.2 to 3 Ma, suggesting that a change in the strength of the California current cannot explain the cooling SST trend. We also found no trend in the percent of upwelling-indicative diatoms, which is consistent with records of alkenone mass accumulation rate, diatom preservation, biosilica, and total organic carbon, none of which show evidence that the upwelling of nutrient-rich subsurface water increased as SST cooled. The fact that upwelling of nutrient-rich water was occurring even when SST were warmer can be explained by a deeper early Pliocene thermocline.

Plume 1400 Meters High Discovered at the Seafloor off the Northern California Margin

On 17 May 2009, the Kongsberg EM302 multibeam echo sounder on board the U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's (NOAA) Okeanos Explorer was collecting bathymetry and water column acoustic data offshore of northern California when it suddenly imaged a previously undiscovered 1400‐meter‐high plume (Figure 1) rising from the seafloor at 40°32.13′N, 124°47.01′W. The ship was mapping in water depths of approximately 1830 meters and heading east up the northern California continental margin 20 kilometers north of the Gorda escarpment. The continental shelf in this area is known to have subsurface and water column thermogenic and methane gas, although no plumes from this area previously have been reported from deeper than the continental shelf.

Pore-fluid Fe isotopes reflect the extent of benthic Fe redox recycling: Evidence from continental shelf and deep-sea sediments

Pore-fluid Fe isotopes may be a unique tracer of sediment respiration by dissimilatory Fe-reducing bacteria, but to date, pore-fluid Fe isotope measurements have been restricted to continental shelf settings. Here, we present δ56Fe values of pore fluids from two distinct sedimentary settings: (1) a riverine-dominated site on the northern California margin (Eel River shelf; 120 m water depth) and (2) biogenic opal-rich volcaniclastic deep-sea sediments from the Southern Ocean (north and south of the Crozet Plateau; 3000–4000 m water depth). The Fe isotope compositions of Crozet region pore fluids are significantly less fractionated (δ56Fe = +0.12‰ to −0.01‰) than the Eel River shelf (δ56Fe = −0.65‰ to −3.40‰) and previous studies of pore-fluid Fe isotopes, relative to average igneous rocks. Our data represent the first measurements of Fe isotope compositions in pore fluids from deep-sea sediments. A comparison of pore-fluid δ56Fe with the relative abundance of highly labile Fe in the reactive sedimentary Fe pool demonstrates that the composition of Fe isotopes in the pore fluids reflects the different extent of sedimentary Fe redox recycling between these sites.

Sediment geochemical records of productivity and oxygen depletion along the margin of western North America during the past 60,000 years: teleconnections with Greenland Ice and the Cariaco Basin

Many sediment records from the margins of the Californias (Alta and Baja) collected in water depths between 60 and 1200 m contain anoxic intervals (laminated sediments) that can be correlated with interstadial intervals as defined by the oxygen-isotope composition of Greenland ice (Dansgaard–Oeschger, D–O, cycles). These intervals include all or parts of Oxygen Isotope Stage 3 (OIS3; 60–24 cal ka), the Bölling/Alleröd warm interval (B/A; 15–13 cal ka), and the Holocene. This study uses organic carbon (Corg) and trace-element proxies for anoxia and productivity, namely elevated concentrations and accumulation rates of molybdenum and cadmium, in these laminated sediments to suggest that productivity may be more important than ventilation in producing changes in bottom-water oxygen (BWO) conditions on open, highly productive continental margins. The main conclusion from these proxies is that during the last glacial interval (LGI; 24–15 cal ka) and the Younger Dryas cold interval (YD; 13–11.6 cal ka) productivity was lower and BWO levels were higher than during OIS3, the B/A, and the Holocene on all margins of the Californias. The Corg and trace-element profiles in the LGI–B/A–Holocene transition in the Cariaco Basin on the margin of northern Venezuela are remarkably similar to those in the transition on the northern California margin. Correlation between D–O cycles in Greenland ice with gray-scale measurements in varved sediments in the Cariaco Basin also is well established. Synchronous climate-driven changes as recorded in the sediments on the margins of the Californias, sediments from the Cariaco Basin, and in the GISP-2 Greenland ice core support the hypothesis that changes in atmospheric dynamics played a major role in abrupt climate change during the last 60 ka. Millennial-scale cycles in productivity and oxygen depletion on the margins of the Californias demonstrate that the California Current System was poised at a threshold whereby perturbations of atmospheric circulation produced rapid changes in circulation in the eastern North Pacific Ocean. It is likely that the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans were linked through the atmosphere. Warmer air temperatures during interstadials would have strengthened Hadley and Walker circulations, which, in turn, would have strengthened the subtropical high pressure systems in both the North Pacific and the North Atlantic, producing increased rainfall over the Cariaco Basin and increased upwelling along the margins of the Californias.

Recruitment response of methane-seep macrofauna to sulfide-rich sediments: An in situ experiment

Hydrodynamically unbiased colonization trays were deployed for 6 months (Oct. 2000 to April 2001) on the northern California margin (Eel R. region; 525 m) to examine macrofaunal colonization rates at methane seeps. The influence of sulfide on recruitment and survival was examined by deploying sediments with and without sulfide added; effect of seep proximity was evaluated by placing trays inside and outside seeps. The trays contained a two-layer system mimicking vesicomyid clam bed habitat geochemistry, with 8–9 mM sulfide in a lower agar layer at the start of the experiment. After 6 month on the seabed, the lower agar layer contained 2–4 mM H 2S. We observed rapid macrofaunal colonization equivalent to 50% of initial non-seep ambient densities. There was no difference in total colonizer densities, number of species, or rarefaction diversity among 3 treatments: (1) controls (no sulfide added) placed outside seeps, (2) trays with sulfide added placed outside seeps and (3) trays with sulfide added placed inside seep patches. Colonization trays with sulfide placed at seeps had different species composition from trays without sulfide place outside seeps; there were more amphipods (non-ampeliscid) and cumaceans in the seep/sulfide treatment and more nemerteans, Nephtys cornuta and tanaids in the non-seep/no-sulfide treatment. Outside seeps, annelids comprised < 15% of tray colonists; within seep patches, annelids comprised 5 of the top 10 dominant colonizing taxa (24% of the total). The polychaetes Mediomastus sp., Aphelochaeta sp., Paraonidae sp., and Nerillidae sp. exhibited significantly higher densities in sulfide additions. Tanaids, echinoderms, and N. cornuta exhibited sulfide avoidance. At least 6 dorvilleid polychaete species colonized the experiments. Of these, 4 species occurred exclusively in trays with sulfide added and 80% of all dorvilleid individuals were found in trays with sulfide placed inside seep sediments. Counts of large sulfur bacterial filaments were positively correlated with maximum sulfide concentration in each tray, and with proximity of sulfide to the sediment surface. However, total macrofaunal densities were not correlated with tray sulfide concentrations. As a group, tray assemblages achieved some but not all characteristics of ambient seep assemblages after 6-month exposure on the sea floor. Distinctive colonization patterns at methane seeps contribute to the dynamic mosaic of habitat patches that characterize the eastern Pacific continental margin. Overall, proximity of seep habitats had at least as great an influence on macrofaunal colonization as tray sulfide concentrations. Taxa characteristic of seep sediments were more likely to settle into trays placed inside rather than outside seep patches. Whether this is due to limited dispersal ability or local geochemical cues remains to be determined.

Observations of intermediate nepheloid layers on the northern California continental margin

Conductivity–temperature–depth and transmissometer surveys were undertaken to investigate the characteristics and seasonal nature of intermediate nepheloid layers (INLs) over the outer shelf and upper slope of the northern California margin, near Eureka, CA. Observed INLs could generally be grouped into one of two categories: INLs that formed and spread seaward from the continental shelf, and INLs generated at continental slope depths greater than 150 m. Shelf INLs, forming between 70 and 150-m depth on the outer shelf and extending seaward 15–20 km past the shelf break, were prevalent during winter and early spring. Continental slope INLs were found during all seasons of the year. Their suspended particulate matter concentration was lower than that of the shelf INLs, and their horizontal extent was 3–7 km seaward from the slope. Mooring data from 450-m depth show strong bottom-trapped semidiurnal internal tidal energy and asymmetry between upslope and downslope semidiurnal motions, indicative of bore-like behavior. These analyses suggest that critical reflection of internal tides is a common feature of the outer continental slope in this region. The location of slope-depth INLs was often observed to coincide with regions where the topographic slope angle was critical for internal tide reflection. In addition, seasonal variability in the span of critical topography over the slope matches seasonal variability in the density of observed INLs over the continental slope. Slope-depth INLs appear to be associated with energetic tidal motions and interaction between internal tides and bathymetry, whereas shelf-depth INLs are likely formed by resuspension events on the outer shelf and subsequent transport offshore by mesoscale circulation processes.

Storm‐induced sediment gravity flows at the head of the Eel submarine canyon, northern California margin

As part of the STRATAFORM program, a bottom‐boundary layer (BBL) tripod was deployed at 120 m depth in the northern thalweg of the Eel Canyon during winter 2000. Increases of the near‐bottom suspended‐sediment concentrations (SSC) recorded at the canyon head were not directly related to the Eel River discharge, but were clearly linked to the occurrence of storms. BBL measurements revealed that during intensifications of the wave orbital velocity, sediment transport at the head of the canyon occurred as sediment gravity flows directed down‐canyon. Observational evidence for near‐bed sediment gravity‐flow transport included an increase toward the bed of the down‐canyon component of wave‐averaged velocity and high estimated SSC. At higher sampling frequencies (1 Hz), the current components during these events fluctuated at the same periodicity as the pressure, reflecting a clear influence of the surface‐wave activity on the generation and maintenance of the sediment gravity flows. The origin of such flows is not related to the formation of fluid muds on the shelf or to intense wave‐current sediment resuspension around the canyon head region. Rather, liquefaction of sediment deposited at the head of the canyon (induced by wave‐load excess pore water pressures during storms) combined with elevated slopes around the canyon head appear to be the mechanisms initiating sediment transport. The resulting fluidized‐sediment layer can easily be eroded, entrained into the water column, and transported down‐canyon as a sediment gravity flow. Results from this study reveal that storm‐induced sediment gravity flows occur periodically in the Eel Canyon head, and suggest that this kind of sediment transport process can occur in other submarine canyons more frequently than previously expected.

Influence of northwest Pacific productivity on North Pacific Intermediate Water oxygen concentrations during the Bølling-Ållerød interval (14.7–12.9 ka)

Elevated productivity in the northwest Pacific is suggested as a new possible control driving past intervals of low-O2 intermediate water along the western continental margin of North America. According to this mechanism, O2 consumption would occur near the site of formation of North Pacific Intermediate Water (NPIW), due to increased respiration of organic carbon in response to a high-productivity event. Evidence is provided for such a productivity increase during the Bolling-Allerod interval (14.7–12.9 ka), a time when laminated sediments were deposited along the northern California margin. By this mechanism, low-O2 events in intermediate waters off the western North American margin could occur without significant changes in the rate of NPIW ventilation.

Controls of tectonics and sediment source locations on along-strike variations in transgressive deposits on the northern California margin

We identify two surfaces in the shallow subsurface on the Eel River margin offshore northern California, a lowstand erosion surface, likely formed during the last glacial maximum, and an overlying surface likely formed during the most recent transgression of the shoreline. The lowstand erosion surface, which extends from the inner shelf to near the shelfbreak and from the Eel River to Trinidad Head (∼80 km), truncates underlying strata on the shelf. Above the surface, inferred transgressive coastal and estuarine sedimentary units separate it from the transgressive surface on the shelf. Early in the transgression, Eel River sediment was likely both transported down the Eel Canyon and dispersed on the slope, allowing transgressive coastal sediment from the smaller Mad River to accumulate in a recognizable deposit on the shelf. The location of coastal Mad River sediment accumulation was controlled by the location of the paleo-Mad River. Throughout the remainder of the transgression, dispersed sediment from the Eel River accumulated an average of 20 m of onlapping shelf deposits. The distribution and thickness of these transgressive marine units was strongly modified by northwest–southeast trending folds. Thick sediment packages accumulated over structural lows in the lowstand surface. The thinnest sediment accumulations (0–10 m) were deposited over structural highs along faults and uplifting anticlines. The Eel margin, an active margin with steep, high sediment-load streams, has developed a thick transgressive systems tract. On this margin sediment accumulates as rapidly as the processes of uplift and downwarp locally create and destroy accommodation space. Sequence stratigraphic models of tectonically active margins should account for variations in accommodation space along margins as well as across them.

Holocene Earthquake Records from the Cascadia Subduction Zone and Northern San Andreas Fault Based on Precise Dating of Offshore Turbidites

▪ Abstract We present preliminary evidence for a ∼10,000-year earthquake record from two major fault systems based on sediment cores collected along the continental margins of western North America. New stratigraphic evidence from Cascadia demonstrates that 13 earthquakes ruptured the entire margin from Vancouver Island to at least the California border since the eruption of the Mazama ash 7700 years ago. The 13 events above this prominent stratigraphic marker have an average repeat time of 600 years, and the youngest event ∼300 years ago coincides with the coastal record. We also extend the record of past earthquakes to the base of the Holocene (at least 9800 years ago), during which 18 events correlate along the same region. The sequence of Holocene events in Cascadia appears to contain a repeating pattern of events, a tantalizing first look at what may be the long-term behavior of a major fault system. The northern California margin cores show a cyclic record of turbidite beds that may represent Holocene earthquakes on the northern segment of the San Andreas Fault. Preliminary results are in reasonably good agreement with onshore paleoseismic data that indicate an age for the penultimate event in the mid-1600s at several sites and the most likely age for the third event of ∼AD 1300.

Spatial heterogeneity of macrofauna at northern California methane seeps: influence of sulfide concentration and fluid flow

Relationships among fluid flow, sulfide concentration, sulfur bacteria and macrofaunal assemblages were examined at methane seeps on the northern California margin, near the mouth of the Eel River (512 to 525 m). Over a 6 mo period, sediments covered with microbial mats exhibited significant but variable outflow of altered fluids, with no flow reversals. This fluid flow was associated with high porewater sulfide concentrations (up to 20 mM) and almost no oxygen penetration of sedi- ments ( 300 µm), but biomass and diversity (no. species per core, E(S100), H ') were lower and composition varied in the sulfidic microbial mat sediments relative to clam-bed and non-seep sediments. The community in microbial mat-covered sediments consisted largely (82%) of 6 species in the polychaete family Dorvilleidae, whereas the clam-bed and non-seep microhabitats supported a mixture of annelids, peracarid crustaceans, nemerteans, and mollusks. Vertical microprofiling of sulfide in animal cores indicated that most taxa avoid H2S concentrations >1 mM. However, sulfide-oxidizing filamentous bacteria, dorvilleid polychaetes and bivalves (mainly V. pacifica) exhibited highest densities at sul- fide concentrations of 1 to 5 mM sulfide. Horizontal and vertical patterns of sulfide availability have a strong influence on the fine-scale distribution, structure and composition of macrofaunal assem- blages inhabiting methane seeps and must be accounted for when characterizing the microbiology and ecology of seep habitats.

Geophysical evidence for Miocene extension and mafic magmatic addition in the California Continental Borderland

The California Continental Borderland is a key region for understanding the effect on crustal structure of tectonic processes associated with the initiation and elongation of the San Andreas transform system because the borderland lies near the point where the Pacific-Farallon spreading system first encountered the North American plate margin. Whereas the central and northern California margins have been extensively investigated by geophysical surveys in recent years, the crustal structure of the borderland, particularly the outer borderland, has received relatively little attention. This paper presents three gravity models that stretch from the Pacific ocean floor to shore; they provide new evidence that the crust of the entire California Continental Borderland has been extended and infiltrated by mafic melt since early Miocene time. The gravity models were constructed from interpretations of nearly 750 km of seismic reflection data, seismic refraction studies, and geologic maps, thus minimizing the nonuniqueness of the method. The evidence for extension in the models is that the crust of the accretionary complex and forearc basin that make up the borderland is only ∼22 km thick, ∼35% thinner than comparable crustal sections in central and northern California. Extension could well have been accommodated by eastward flow of accretionary-complex material during middle Miocene formation of a metamorphic core complex in the inner borderland. The gravity models also show that the accretionary complex is 100–200 kg/m 3 more dense than commonly observed to the north. This density difference may result from influx of basaltic melts due to mantle upwelling at the Rivera triple junction and beneath the highly extended inner borderland. The borderland models permit the occurrence of a discrete mafic layer that forms the base of the crust, as is seen along the central and northern California coast, but do not require such a layer9s presence anywhere except immediately inland of the shelf-slope break.

Effect of the northward-migrating Mendocino triple junction on the Eel River forearc basin, California: Stratigraphic development

The Eel River forearc basin, northern California, lies at the southern end of the Cascadia subduction zone and at the leading edge of the migrating Mendocino triple junction. Stratigraphic relationships within the Eel River forearc basin suggest that the current outer-arc high formed between ca. 3 and 2 Ma when the margin switched from a nonaccretionary to an accretionary phase and then uplifted to attain critical taper. Between ca. 2 and 1 Ma, an influx of sedimentation from the ancestral Klamath and Eel River systems increased the width of the northern California margin and caused continued uplift followed by widespread erosion of the western margin of the basin at ca. 1 Ma. In the northeastern part of the forearc basin, localized erosion of the shelf occurred at ca. 500 ka. The arrival of the northward-migrating Mendocino triple junction at ca. 500 ka is documented by uplift, northward tilting, erosion of the margin as much as 20 km north of Cape Mendocino, and reduced deposition within the forearc basin as much as 80 km north of the current position of the triple junction. Terrestrial sediments delivered to the continental margin and eroded sediments near the triple junction largely bypassed the southern part of the basin and were likely deposited in northern areas of the basin or flowed down the Eel Canyon to be deposited within the Gorda Fan.

Evolution of Continental Slope Gullies on the Northern California Margin

ABSTRACT A series of subparallel, downslope-trending gullies on the northern California continental slope is revealed on high-resolution seismic reflection profiles imaging the uppermost 50 m of sediment. The gullies are typically 0 m wide and have 1 to 3 m of relief. They extend for 10 to 15 km down the slope and merge into larger channels that feed the Trinity Canyon. In the lower half of the 50 m stratigraphic section, the gullies increase in both relief and number up section, to maxima at a surface 5 to 10 m below the last glacial maximum lowstand surface. Gully relief increased as interfluves aggraded more rapidly than thalwegs. Erosion is not evident in the gully bottoms, therefore gully growth was probably due to reduced sediment deposition within the gullies relative to that on interfluves. As the gullies increased in relief, their heads extended upslope toward the shelfbreak. At all times, a minimum of 10 km of non-gullied upper slope and shelf stretched between the heads of the gullies and the paleo-shoreline; the gullies did not connect with a subaerial drainage network at any time. Gully growth occurred when the gully heads were in relatively shallow water ( 200 m paleo-water depth) and were closest to potential sediment sources. We suggest that prior to the last glacial maximum, the Mad River, then within 10 km of the gully heads, supplied sediment to the upper slope, which fed downslope-eroding sediment flows. These flows removed sediment from nearly parallel gullies at a rate slightly slower than sediment accumulation from the Eel River, 40 km to the south. The process or processes responsible for gully growth and maintenance prior to the last glacial maximum effectively ceased following the lowstand, when sea level rose and gully heads lay in deeper water ( 300 m water depth), farther from potential sediment sources. During sea-level highstand, the Mad River is separated from the gully heads by a shelf 30 km wide and no longer feeds sediment flows down the gullies, which fill with sediment from the distal Eel River. Approximately one-half of the subsurface gullies have no expression on the seafloor, because they have completely filled with sediment following the last glacial maximum lowstand of sea level.

Bathymetric Map of the Gorda Plate: Structural and Geomorphological Processes Inferred from Multibeam Surveys

Full-coverage multibeam bathymetric maps of the southern section of the Juan de Fuca Plate, also known as the Gorda Plate, are presented. The bathymetric maps represent the compilation of multibeam surveys conducted by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration during the last 20 yrs, and illustrate the complex tectonic, volcanic, and geomorphologic features as well as the intense deformation occurring within this region. The bathymetric data have revealed several major, previously unmapped midplate faults. A series of gently curving faults are apparent in the Gorda Plate, with numerous faults offsetting the Gorda Plate seafloor. The multibeam surveys have also provided a detailed view of the intense deformation occurring within the Gorda Plate. A preliminary deformation model estimated from basement structure is discussed, where the southern part of the plate (south of ∼42°30′ N) seems to be deforming through a series of left-lateral strike-slip faults, while the northern section appears to be moving passively with the rest of the Juan de Fuca Plate. The bathymetry also demonstrates the Mendocino and Eel Canyons are prominent morphologic features in the northern California margin. These canyons are active depositional features with a large sediment fan present at the mouths of both the Mendocino and Eel canyons. The depositional lobes of these fan(s) are evident in the bathymetry, as are the turbidite channels that have deposited sediment along the fans over time. The Trinidad Canyon is readily evident in the margin morphology as well, with a large (∼10 km) plunge pool formed at the mouth of the canyon as it enters the Gorda Plate sediments.

Benthic foraminifera associated with cold methane seeps on the northern California margin: Ecology and stable isotopic composition

Release of methane from large marine reservoirs has been linked to climate change, as a causal mechanism and a consequence of temperature changes, during the Quaternary and the Paleocene. These inferred linkages are based primarily on variations in benthic foraminiferal stable isotope signatures. Few modern analog data exist, however, to assess the influence of methane flux on the geochemistry or faunal characteristics of benthic foraminiferal assemblages. Here we present analyses of the ecology and stable isotopic compositions of living (Rose Bengal stained) and dead (fossil) foraminifera (>150 μm ) from cold methane seeps on the slope off of the Eel River, northern California (500–525 m), and discuss potential applications for reconstructions of methane release in the past and present. Calcareous foraminiferal assemblages associated with Calyptogena clam bed seeps were comprised of species that are also found in organic-rich environments. Cosmopolitan, paleoceanographically important taxa were abundant; these included Uvigerina, Bolivina, Chilostomella, Globobulimina, and Nonionella. We speculate that seep foraminifera are attracted to the availability of food at cold seeps, and require no adaptations beyond those needed for life in organic-rich, reducing environments. Oxygen isotopic values of the tests of living foraminiferal assemblages from seeps had a high range (up to 0.69‰) as did carbon isotopic values (up to 1.02‰). Many living foraminiferal isotope values were within the range exhibited by the same or similar species in non-seep environments. Carbon isotopic values of fossil foraminifera found deeper in the sediments (18–20 cm), however, were 4.10‰ (U. peregrina) and 3.60‰ (5. subargentea) more negative than living δ 13C values. These results suggest that δ 13C values of foraminiferal tests reflect methane seepage and species-specific differences in isotopic composition, and can indicate temporal variations in seep activity. A better understanding of foraminiferal ecology and stable isotopic composition will enhance paleo-seep recognition, and improve interpretations of climatic and paleoceanographic change.

Diatom mats in Gulf of California sediments: Implications for the paleoenvironmental interpretation of laminated sediments and silica burial

Preservation of laminations in hemipelagic and pelagic sediments is routinely attributed to reduced oxygen conditions that inhibited benthic activity. As such, the degree of preservation of laminae is used commonly as a paleo-oxygenation indicator. Recent evidence from deep-sea pelagic sediments in the eastern equatorial Pacific and North Atlantic, however, demonstrates that preservation of laminae may occur by rapid deposition of ungrazed Thalassiothrix longissima diatom mats that overwhelm the benthos in otherwise oxic bottom waters. Here, we report that similar diatom mat laminae are common in hemipelagic sediments of the Guaymas Basin in the Gulf of California, have aided preservation of the laminated sediment sequence and have also enhanced opal burial. Examples of diatom mats influencing sediment preservation are also described from the northern California Margin and from the Miocene Monterey Formation, southern California. Thus, even in classical settings of laminated sediment occurrence, caution needs to be taken in correlating degree of lamina preservation with paleo-oxygen levels. Such studies must be underpinned by detailed microfabric and micropaleontological analyses.