Northern Burundi Research Articles

Local Observations of Climate Change and Adaptation Responses: A Case Study in the Mountain Region of Burundi-Rwanda

Mountain regions and their communities are particularly vulnerable to climate change impacts. However, little is known on the impacts observed and adaptation responses used in Burundi’s mountain region and if these are different to those reported in the contiguous mountain region of Rwanda. This paper aims to fill in these knowledge gaps. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 300 smallholder farmers, 150 in northern Burundi and 150 in southern Rwanda. Farmers in both countries reported negative impacts on crops, animals, and human health, with small differences between countries driven by the main cultivated crops. More adaptation strategies were used in Burundi than in Rwanda, and more farmers in Burundi were using multiple strategies. In both countries, farmers’ wealth affected farmers’ adaptation responses and their food security. Notably, for all wealth groups (poor, average, rich), food security was lower in Rwanda than in Burundi. We relate our findings to current agricultural intensification policies in both countries and argue for the greater involvement of local farmers in adaptation planning using, for example, science-with-society approaches.

Determinants the failure to meet the for family planning among young married women in Burundi

In Burundi, seven individuals among ten are aged under 25 and one among five are aged 15-24. Improving the needs of these young people in Sexual and Reproductive Health is essential to guarantee their health and facilitate their education, offer them meaningful employment and reduce poverty. To search the "determinants" of Unmet Need for Family Planning (FP) among young married women in this country. The analyses of data from the Demographic and Health Survey (DHS) carried out in Burundi in 2016, which were performed using binary logistic regression models, reveal that the "determinants" of the studied phenomenon are the region of residence, family composition of the household, number of surviving children, imbalance in the sexes of children and decision-making in healthcare. The risk of Unmet Need for FP was found to be higher in the Northern Burundi than in the East. In addition, the respondents having at least two alive children, having more daughters than boys and autonomous in decision-making in healthcare were found to be the most concerned by the Unmet Need for FP. To increase in Burundi the prevalence of modern contraceptive methods among young married women, we should therefore strengthen awareness campaigns on the benefits and importance of FP by targeting those with these characteristics andimproving their accessibility to these methods.

Plasmodium falciparum and P. malariae: infection rates in the population of Northern Imbo Plain, Burundi.

Background:Burundi is cited among countries where malaria remains endemic. Notably, malaria is highly endemic in Imbo region, a lowland lying astride Lake Tanganyika. Among key malaria riposte interventions includes the promotion of Long-Lasting Insecticidal Nets (LLINs), but its incidence rate has not reduced. In this paper, we present the distribution of malaria species in 2 settings within Imbo region by accounting for the seasonal variations and the mostly infected populations.Methods:The study was conducted from 2 Health Care Centres of Murambi and Rugombo in Cibitoke District, Northern Burundi. Blood samples were collected on blood slides and the samples were used to confirm the presence of malaria parasites by microscopy.Results:The study observed an average malaria parasite prevalence of 32.5% across the selected site. Majority of patients 459(95.2%) were infected by P. falciparum while 8(1.7%) patients were infected by P. malariae. Patients from Murambi were more infected than those from Rugombo. P. falciparum was the most highly prevalent specie in the 2 localities. High prevalence was observed in children aged between 2 and 5 years. Among older participants P. falciparum still predominated and mixed infections were rather the least prevalent.Conclusion:This study showed that P. falciparum and P. malariae are the most parasites involved in malaria morbidity in North Imbo region. The transmission of P. falciparum was observed year-round. Patients in Murambi are most exposed to malaria infections than those in Rugombo. Further research at large scale including entomological studies is required to better understand the relationship between Entomological Inoculation Rates (EIR) and malaria transmission levels in this setting.

Socio-economic impacts of the exploitation of the marshes of Kayanza province in the Northern Burundi: case of marshes of the average Ruvubu and its tributaries

The wetlands whose marshes are currently under pressure from the growing population require a consequent increase in production. The marshes are now agricultural reserves coveted because, firstly, the scarcity of arable land, of the other problems of erosion and soil fertility decline affecting land in hills uphill. The mostly poor people resort to these marginal lands, to the suppression of fallows and to afforestation. This results in overexploitation that accelerates the degradation of soil and biological and abiotic resources. However, farmers do not have the knowledge and technologies to enable them to sustainably manage wetlands. The results of this study show that the population of our study area is largely dependent on marshes for drinking and irrigation water supply, building and basketry materials, and plant species to feed the farm animals. The majority of farmers have a portion of land in the marshes. The main crops are currently leguminous and tuberous plants with rice and beans which are successively the most productive crops. The majority exploit the marshes in both dry and rain seasons. The marshes provide 78% of the farmers with an average income between 0 and $ 30 per plot/season. The income is very low given the needs of farmers. These activities have resulted in the disappearance of the original fauna and vegetation of these marshes more than 13 years ago. The results of the study led us to conclude that these marshes were dominated by Cyperus papyrus . The draining of marshes has led to the drying up of springs, the loss of many animal and plant species.

Improving local land governance? Exploring the linkages between land governance reforms, institutional pluralism and tenure security in Burundi

ABSTRACTReforms in land governance are assumed to significantly enhance the security of tenure in conflict-affected countries, through stimulating the resolution of land disputes, contributing to better control of property rights and reorganising the institutional framework for land management. Yet, this paper highlights the ambiguous outcomes of such reforms in situation of institutional multiplicity. Fieldwork in Ngozi province in northern Burundi points out how land-related reforms such as decentralising the administrative authority at the communal and hill levels and policy reforms in the formalisation of property rights have positive impacts in terms of dealing with specific land disputes and fostering local feelings of tenure security in the aftermath of the 2000 Arusha Peace Agreement. However, land governance reforms have also fuelled the proliferation of land governing institutions and fostered confusion among state and non-state authorities about which rules to apply and their roles in mitigating tensions over landownership and enforcing property rights. Actually, while introducing new laws, policies, institutions and practices, land governance reforms have produced mixed effects in securing local tenure for most community members and increased contestations against the authority of government representatives at the local level.

Weathering and evaporation controls on dissolved uranium concentrations in groundwater – A case study from northern Burundi

The potential use of groundwater for potable water supply can be severely compromised by natural contaminants such as uranium. The environmental mobility of uranium depends on a suite of factors including aquifer lithology, redox conditions, complexing agents, and hydrological processes. Uranium concentrations of up to 734μg/L are found in groundwater in northern Burundi, and the objective of the present study was to identify the causes for these elevated concentrations. Based on a comprehensive data set of groundwater chemistry, geology, and hydrological measurements, it was found that the highest dissolved uranium concentrations in groundwater occur near the shores of Lake Tshohoha South and other smaller lakes nearby. A model is proposed in which weathering and evapotranspiration during groundwater recharge, flow and discharge exert the dominant controls on the groundwater chemical composition. Results of PHREEQC simulations quantitatively confirm this conceptual model and show that uranium mobilization followed by evapo-concentration is the most likely explanation for the high dissolved uranium concentrations observed. The uranium source is the granitic sand, which was found to have a mean elemental uranium content of 14ppm, but the exact mobilization process could not be established. Uranium concentrations may further be controlled by adsorption, especially where calcium-uranyl‑carbonate complexes are present. Water and uranium mass balance calculations for Lake Tshohoha South are consistent with the inferred fluxes and show that high‑uranium groundwater represents only a minor fraction of the overall water input to the lake. These findings highlight that the evaporation effects that cause radionuclide concentrations to rise to harmful levels in groundwater discharge areas are not only confined to arid regions, and that this should be considered when selecting suitable locations for water supply wells.

Population genetic structure of Grauer's Swamp Warbler Bradypterus graueri, an Albertine Rift endemic

The endangered warbler Bradypterus graueri is endemic to the Albertine Rift, where it is restricted to montane swamps above 1900 m across the region. We studied genetic structure among six populations sampled across the species' distribution in northern Burundi, Rwanda, Uganda and the eastern Democratic Republic of Congo. A total of 2117 base pairs of mitochondrial data were sequenced. Phylogenetic analyses and network reconstruction of B. graueri haplotypes recovered three clades with a defined geographical pattern: clade 1, Virunga Volcanoes and Kigezi Highlands; clade 2, Rugege Highlands; and clade 3, Kahuzi‐Biega Highlands; clades 2 and 3 are sisters to each other. Both landscape dynamics and historical climate are likely to have played a role in the diversification of this species. The divergence between clade 1 and clades 2 and 3 (168.5 ka, 95% HPD 108.5, 244.4) coincides with a prolonged period of aridity in tropical Africa between 130 and 270 ka. Similarly, the divergence between clades 2 and 3 (99.4 ka, 95% HPD 55.4, 153.8) corresponds with a period of aridity just prior to 94 ka. Populations sampled from the eastern arm of the central Albertine Rift (Kigezi and Rugege Highlands) show a coincident increase in effective population size after the Last Glacial Maximum at c. 15 ka, whereas those sampled from Kahuzi‐Biega on the western arm of the rift do not. Despite the perceived higher vagility of bird species relative to other vertebrates, the degree of phylogeographical structure among populations of B. graueri is similar to that reported for small mammals (Hylomyscus vulcanorum, Lophuromys woosnami, Sylvisorex vulcanorum) and a frog Hyperolius castaneus sampled across the central Albertine Rift. Collectively our results suggest that climate dynamics associated with late Pleistocene cycles had a significant influence on driving the population genetic structure and associated levels of genetic diversity in B. graueri and other small terrestrial vertebrates. Our results have implications for the conservation of B. graueri and other endemics to the Albertine Rift, particularly in the context of other phylogegeographical studies centred on this biodiversity hotspot.

Seasonal and Geographic Variation of Pediatric Malaria in Burundi: 2011 to 2012.

We analyzed hospitalization records from 2011 to 2012 to examine the spatial patterns of pediatric malaria in Burundi. Malaria case data for those below the age of five years were categorized according to the four principal seasons of Burundi, which are two rainy seasons (February to May; September to November) and two dry seasons (June to August; December to January). The Getis-Ord Gi* statistic was used to examine seasonal spatial patterns of pediatric malaria, whereas geographically weighted regression (GWR) were used to examine the potential role of environmental variables on the spatial patterns of cases. There were a total of 19,890 pediatric malaria cases reported during the study period. The incidence among males was higher than that among females; and it was higher in rural districts. The seasonal incidence peaks occurred in the northern half of the country during the wet season while during the dry season, incidence was higher in southern Burundi. Elevation played a greater role in explaining variance in the prevalence of pediatric malaria during seasonal peaks than rainfall. The counterintuitive finding in northern Burundi confirms previous findings and suggests other factors (e.g., land cover/land use) facilitate the persistence of the mosquito population in the highlands of Africa.

Food for Survival: Diagnosing Crop Patterns to Secure Lower Threshold Food Security Levels in Farm Households of Burundi.

Burundi is one of the world's poorest countries, coming last in the Global Food Index (2013). Yet, a large majority of its population depends on agriculture. Most smallholder families do not produce enough to support their own families. To estimate the optimal crop mix and resources needed to provide the family with food containing sufficient energy, fat, and protein. This study uses mathematical programming to obtain the optimal crop mix that could maximize output given the constraints on production factor endowments and the need to feed the household. The model is calibrated with household-level data collected in 2010 in Ngozi Province in northern Burundi. Four models are developed, each representing a different farm type. The typology is based on 2007 data. Model predictions are compared with data collected during a revisit of the area in 2012. By producing a smaller number of crops and concentrating on those in which they have a comparative advantage, and trading produce and input with other farms, large and medium-sized farms can improve their productivity and hire extra workers to supplement family labor. Predictions of crops to be planted coincided to a high degree with those that farmers planted 2 years after our survey on newly acquired plots. Despite land scarcity, it is still possible for households that own land to find optimal crop combinations that can meet their minimal food security requirements while generating a certain level of income. Nearly landless households would benefit from the increased off-farm employment opportunities. With only 0.05 ha of land per capita, the annotation Nearly Landless is used to highlight the limited access to land observed in this farm category.

Rural resilience and the role of social capital among farmers in Kirundo province, Northern Burundi

In Burundi, more than 90% of the active population is engaged in family agriculture, which plays a vital role in food production and constitutes more than 50% of the GDP. Before the civil war of 1993, Kirundo was deemed the “breadbasket of the country”, as the region fed many parts of Burundi through growing particular foods such as legumes and cereals. Family farming was market-oriented. Kirundo alone includes 8 lakes which offer opportunities for field irrigation. Today, this region is the first province in Burundi which shows a high rate of malnutrition, as poverty has increased and a sharp 53.9 % decline in agricultural production has been witnessed between 1996 and 2009. The aim of this article is to analyse the role of social capital through the local association network in improving family agriculture and the resilience to climate change and conflict crisis. In this study, 73 farmers were surveyed in Kirundo province through means of a questionnaire, and the study was completed by collecting secondary data. Analysis of the data reveals that, despite recurrent droughts in that region which caused deaths due to famines and displacement of people to neighbouring countries such as Rwanda and Tanzania, 44% of the farmers who were surveyed were shown to have resilience to climate change. The analysis of data shows that these farmers were members of well organised local associations, and had learned about specific topics such as financial management, processing and storage of agricultural products and livestock. The social capital network positively influences their income and their resilience to climate change and conflict crisis.

Paleolimnological investigations of anthropogenic environmental change in Lake Tanganyika: IV. Lacustrine paleoecology

Fossil invertebrates from cores collected in Lake Tanganyika provide a record of probable nearshore ecological response to recent watershed deforestation and sediment erosion in several East African watersheds. We compared paleoecological profiles (primarily from ostracodes) from watersheds spanning a range of sizes and present-day deforestation disturbance levels to understand the timing and magnitude of faunal changes, and their relationship in time to terrestrially-derived disturbance indicators. Profiles from the Lubulungu and Nyasanga/Kahama Rivers (Tanzania) provide a record of faunal variability in watersheds that are currently undisturbed with respect to deforestation. These records indicate continuous faunal turnover through time. However, this pattern of turnover is accompanied by relatively high levels of diversity throughout the record, with no wholesale extinction events. Ostracode taphonomic data and other fossil abundance data from the Lubulungu area provide strong evidence in support of at least two episodes of lower lake levels, associated with episodes of Late Holocene aridity. Records from deltas of disturbed watersheds at the Kabesi River (Tanzania) and those of Northern Burundi all show a combination of profound and abrupt faunal turnover, in some cases accompanied by local extinction and establishment of a few dominant taxa. At the Mwamgongo River delta, fed from a very small, disturbed watershed, species turnover was subtler. In disturbed watershed cores showing abrupt faunal changes the transitions mostly occurred in the late 19th to early 20th centuries, predating the major mid-20th century increase in sediment mass accumulation rates, with the latter only correlated with changing fossil abundance and flux. However, the earlier faunal community changes are contemporaneous with both palynological and geochemical changes in the core profiles indicative of changing land-use patterns. This suggests that lacustrine ecosystem response to deforestation was a two-stage process, with an earlier phase of response to changing quality of sediments or dissolved matter being discharged from the watershed, and a subsequent phase responding to increased quantity of sediment.

Response of uncomplicated falciparum malaria to oral chloroquine and quinine in Burundi highlands

The in vivo response of falciparum malaria to oral chloroquine and quinine was evaluated in two identical hospital-based, comparative open trials carried out 2 years apart in the same seasonal period at a hospital located in the highlands of Northern Burundi. Children aged 0–14 with uncomplicated falciparum malaria were administered either chloroquine, at 25 mg/kg over 3 days, or quinine, at 10 mg/kg per 8 hourly for 5 days (alternate allocation) and treatment response was evaluated by the WHO 7-day test. In the first study (1992/1993) 472 patients qualified for analyses (211 in the chloroquine and 261 in the quinine group), as compared to 249 subjects in the second study (1994/1995). In each study, the response to quinine was significantly higher than that to chloroquine ( P=0.004 and <0.001, respectively). While the response to quinine showed insignificant changes over time (95.8 vs. 92.9%), chloroquine was found to be significantly less effective in the second study as compared to the first (77.8 vs. 63.1%; OR (95% CI) 2.04 (1.21–3.43)). Such decline in chloroquine efficacy was attributable to the age group <5 years of age, where response to chloroquine decreased from 72.9% in 1992/93 to 56% in 1994/1995. Uncontrolled chloroquine use, which spread after the onset in late 1993 of the still ongoing ethnic fighting, appears to be the most likely reason for such a decrease in chloroquine efficacy. Chloroquine resistance has long been known to be present in the hyperendemic lowlands of Burundi, but no data have so far been reported on the response to antimalarials in the highlands of the country. These findings should be considered when deciding on drug policies for the treatment of falciparum malaria in Burundi.

Morbidity and Mortality Surveillance in Rwandan Refugees Burundi and Zaire, 1994

In April 1994, resumption of a longstanding conflict between the Hutus and Tutsis--the two major ethnic groups in the central African countries of Burundi and Zaire--resulted in civil war and mass genocide in Rwanda. An estimated 63,000 (primarily Tutsi) refugees subsequently moved from Rwanda into northern Burundi, and 500,000 refugees fled to Tanzania (Figure 1). In early July 1994, as armed strife subsided, many Tutsis returned home to Rwanda, and an estimated 1 million Rwandan Hutus fled to Zaire, and 170,000 fled to Burundi. To monitor the health status of the refugees, the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) and nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) working in refugee camps in both countries established systems for rapid surveillance of morbidity and mortality. This report presents the findings of these systems during May-September 1994 (the period of the most intensive population migration) and indicates that mortality was high among refugees in camps in both countries.

Africa — Latin America — Asia — Middle East

The ICRC assisted more than 12 000 persons in northern Burundi following the outbreaks in August of violent ethnic disputes. Blankets, clothing, soap, cooking utensils and farming tools were distributed from mid-September to the affected population.Relief materials were in part transported by truck from Uganda and in part purchased locally by the ICRC.Distributions took place in the villages of Ntega and Marangara, near the border with Rwanda, where the recent clashes had occurred. Delegates distributed supplies first in the centres set up for displaced persons, then in the hills to which the population was gradually returning.

Apatite fission-track dating applied to Precambrian terranes

Fission-track (FT) dating has not commonly been applied to Precambrian rocks. Although it is possible to obtain formation ages on orthosilicates, it is apatite that is dated most frequently because of its specific characteristics with regard to track annealing, which makes it especially suited for reconstructing the final thermal history of the investigated area. With this respect apatite FT ages are often interpreted in terms of uplift and age variations registered on samples from different topographic altitudes are used to calculate uplift rates. In the older part of the Earth's crust this practice may lead to very slow rates in the order of 10 m Ma −1. It is argued that these rates may have no geological meaning and that the apatite FT ages can be more probably related to a long period of complete crustal stability that has been disturbed by relatively recent tectonic uplift and erosion. In this way apatites that resided in the partial track stability zone during the period of continental stability were brought at the surface and a correlated decrease of the FT ages with topographic altitude simply reflects the greater depth at which the samples resided in that zone. The importance of track length measurements in the search for a correct age interpretation is also emphasized. With this respect old ages obtained on apatites that do not show a distinct spontaneous track length reduction are thought to plead in favor of crustal stability. The late Precambrian alkaline pluton in northern Burundi (Central Africa) offers a good case study yielding apatite FT ages that can better be interpreted using this alternative approach.