Northeast Syria Research Articles

Investigating the impacts of climate variations and armed conflict on drought and vegetation cover in Northeast Syria (2000–2023)

Over the last decades, The Northeast part of Syria (NES) has been significantly affected by multiple drought events, which are exacerbated by armed conflict and climate variations. In this study, the spatiotemporal effects of climate fluctuations on drought episodes and agricultural areas in NES from 2000 to 2023 were examined by utilizing diverse meteorological parameters combined with the normalized difference vegetation index. The relationships between the change in climatic variables and vegetation cover alterations were determined by performing different statistical methods, such as the Pearson correlation coefficient and Mann-Kendall trend analysis. The results indicated a significant decrease in the agricultural area, especially in recent years, accompanied by a notable increase in the precipitation levels. Moreover, there has been a substantial increase in temperatures, particularly in the minimum temperatures. The results also indicate that drought severity and frequency have increased since the armed conflict despite the area receiving higher precipitation amounts, highlighting the role and impacts of violence. Therefore, we recommend further research on how different vegetation species have been affected by climate change and armed conflict, defining specific growing seasons for each vegetation species, and creating land use land cover maps to understand the spatial alteration of these types better.

Selected issues regarding children’s rights in the war on terror with a particular focus on Syria

Abstract The aim of the article is to analyse the legal situation of the children held in camps in northeast Syria. The situation in the camps is devastating and poses a threat to the children’s right to life as well as physical and mental integrity. The article explores whether the states of citizenship of these children exercise any jurisdiction over them, and if the answer is affirmative, to what extent they exercise this jurisdiction. Next, the research will focus on the question of whether the states of citizenship have the obligation to repatriate those children from Syria. To this aim, the status of these children as victims of human trafficking will be also examined. Lastly, the deliberations will focus on the policy of citizenship revocation that is applied by some states in terrorism combatting and it will be studied whether this policy can be applied to children in conformity with international law. It results from the analysis that states have obligations towards children placed in the Syrian camps being their nationals, especially an obligation to repatriate them and to enable their rehabilitation and reintegration.

Syria: Statelet of Survivors: The Making of a Semi-Autonomous Region in Northeast Syria, by Amy Austin Holmes (book review)

Statelet of Survivors: The Making of a Semi-Autonomous Region in Northeast Syria, by Amy Austin Holmes. New York: Oxford University Press, 2024. 270 pages. $99 cloth, $29.95 paper.

An Overview of Arabic Language Open Educational Resources (OER) for Primary and Secondary Education and Their Use in Offline Environments

Open educational resource (OER) initiatives have opened new avenues for educational opportunities, yet OER adoption levels globally remain low. Two significant obstacles to more widespread adoption of OER are the challenge of internet connectivity that nearly half the world’s population still faces, and the lack of locally-relevant (e.g. in terms of language and curricula) OER resources. This article’s contribution is twofold. First, it presents a qualitative landscape analysis of existing primary- and secondary-level Arabic-language digital OERs and of the initiatives that provide these resources. Second, it details applied research via a case study, wherein appropriate resources identified in the analysis were subsequently curated for inclusion in an offline digital library currently being used in schools in Northeast Syria that offers all Open resources. Results from the landscape analysis indicate a limited quantity of Arabic-language OER content available for primary and secondary education. Furthermore, multiple challenges hinder the adoption of OER in resource-constrained settings. Accordingly, recommendations are made that could help to improve these resources' ability to be used, particularly drawing from the article’s applied case study for examples. Given the case study’s application of providing locally-relevant OER resources in an offline setting, this article provides a real-world example of furthering open e-learning, despite infrastructural, linguistic, and socio-political challenges. As such, it advances research supporting innovative e-learning practice, and should be of interest for scholars and practitioners interested in furthering the adoption of open e-learning in low-resource settings globally.

Infection prevention and control in conflict-affected areas in northeast Syria: A cross-sectional study

ObjectivesIn northeastern Syria (NES), the adherence of health care facilities to infection prevention and control (IPC) standards remains underexplored. This study evaluates the IPC performance of various health facilities against World Health Organization (WHO) benchmarks using the IPC Assessment Framework (IPCAF) and the Hand Hygiene Self-Assessment Framework (HHSAF). MethodsWe conducted a cross-sectional survey of 33 health care facilities, including primary (PHC), secondary (SHC), and tertiary health care centres (THC). Data were collected via on-site evaluations using the IPCAF and HHSAF tools. ResultsA significant 91% of facilities did not meet half of the WHO IPC minimum requirements. Specifically, 57% of PHCs met 26-50% of the standards, while none exceeded 75%. Among SHCs, 71% met 26-50% of the standards, while 44% of THCs fell within this range. Notably, 81.8% of facilities were classified as ‘inadequate’ per the IPCAF, with none achieving ‘intermediate’ or ‘advanced’ levels. The HHSAF results were similarly concerning, with 34.4% deemed ‘inadequate’ and 65.6% at the ‘basic’ level. A weak positive correlation (0.137) was found between IPCAF and HHSAF scores. ConclusionsNES health care facilities demonstrate substantial deficiencies in IPC compliance, with critical gaps in IPC programmes, health care–associated infection surveillance, and training. Urgent interventions are required to enhance IPC practices, leveraging local strengths and fostering international collaborations to improve patient safety and health care quality in the region.

Future security threats arising from the UK’s deprivation of citizenship: a model to understand the human rights-security risk landscape

ABSTRACT Following the collapse of the Islamic State, the issue of “Returning Foreign Fighters” became a dominant global problem. The securitised response adopted by many states is a cause for concern, particularly in relation to human rights. Men, women and children with a range of physical and psychological trauma are now situated in camps across northeastern Syria, posing a complex security threat. The situation in these camps is far from secure, and the risk of radicalisation and indoctrination (among the children in particular) is high. Through the development of a model of risk analysis which emphasises both security risks and human rights risks, this paper presents an innovative exploration of the phenomenon of women and children associated with ISIS in north-east Syria. The impact of this study is wide-reaching and is intended to provide a foundation for resolving the heightened security threat these individuals pose in the medium and long terms.

How safe is the zone, and how voluntarily are the returnees? Turkey’s project for a ‘safe and dignified’ voluntary repatriation of Syrian refugees and the potential implementation of R2P on behalf of returnees

ABSTRACT The millions of refugees in Turkey are left in political limbo. Anti-refugee sentiment in society has also become an issue. However, in contradiction to the earlier Muslim solidarity rhetoric of ‘Muhajir and Ansar’, the Turkish government has been implementing its repatriation project that requires a ‘safe and dignified’ voluntary return of a million Syrian refugees to Turkey's safe zone in Northeast Syria. The article argues that the country's current political, economic and social conjuncture overshadows the voluntary character of the government's repatriation project and claims that Turkey's voluntary repatriation project does not meet the requirements of the international refugee protection regime. Building on the policy-oriented approach to international law, the article examines the potential implementation of the preventive dimension of Responsibility to Protect (R2P) on behalf of Syrian ‘returnees’. The article concludes that the ‘two-phase’ responsibility strategy that imposes responsibilities on the host country and the international community, which would be implemented simultaneously in Turkey's repatriation project, can protect returnees from possible danger in Syria. However, it can also set a precedent for future cases by filling a gap in International Refugee Law that does not address voluntary repatriation.

Cropland abandonment in the context of drought, economic restructuring, and migration in northeast Syria

Farmland abandonment is often associated with biophysical, political, or socio-economic changes, like droughts, economic reforms, rural-urban migration, or armed conflicts. Syria has seen several such changes in the period between 2000–2011, however, few assessments of how these factors have interacted with land abandonment have been carried out. In this study we investigate land abandonment patterns in northeast Syria, using a land use classification based on satellite data to indicate agricultural drought impacts and land abandonment. We combine these data with information on land use and migration patterns collected through a unique fieldwork, including surveys and interviews with Syrian farmers who had migrated to Turkey. Our analysis shows that drought coincided with a strong drop in cultivated croplands in 2008 and 2009. We also found a comparatively high cropland abandonment between 2001 and 2013, however no strong increases during or after drought years. Local insights indicate that migration took place during both normal years and drought years, and that most migrants had abandoned their lands after leaving Syria. We suggest that long-term mismanagement of water resources along with changes in the political economy, drove land abandonment in northeast Syria between 2001 and 2010. After 2011, armed conflict likely drove abandonment, but rates remained similar to the pre-conflict period. We discuss the potential of land abandonment as an indicator of rural migration in areas where migration data is sparse and conclude that more research is needed to understand the migration-land abandonment nexus, particularly in the Middle East.

“Actually, the psychological wounds are more difficult than physical injuries:” a qualitative analysis of the impacts of attacks on health on the personal and professional lives of health workers in the Syrian conflict

IntroductionAttacks on healthcare in armed conflict have far-reaching impacts on the personal and professional lives of health workers, as well as the communities they serve. Despite this, even in protracted conflicts such as in Syria, health workers may choose to stay despite repeated attacks on health facilities, resulting in compounded traumas. This research explores the intermediate and long-term impacts of such attacks on healthcare on the local health professionals who have lived through them with the aim of strengthening the evidence base around such impacts and better supporting them.MethodsWe undertook purposive sampling of health workers in northwest and northeast Syria; we actively sought to interview non-physician and female health workers as these groups are often neglected in similar research. In-depth interviews (IDIs) were conducted in Arabic and transcribed into English for framework analysis. We used an a priori codebook to explore the short- and long-term impacts of attacks on the health workers and incorporated emergent themes as analysis progressed.ResultsA total of 40 health workers who had experienced attacks between 2013 and 2020 participated in IDIs. 13 were female (32.5%). Various health cadres including doctors, nurses, midwives, pharmacists, students in healthcare and technicians were represented. They were mainly based in Idlib (39.5%), and Aleppo (37.5%) governorates. Themes emerged related to personal and professional impacts as well as coping mechanisms. The key themes include firstly the psychological harms, second the impacts of the nature of the attacks e.g. anticipatory stress related to the ‘double tap’ nature of attacks as well as opportunities related to coping mechanisms among health workers.ConclusionViolence against healthcare in Syria has had profound and lasting impacts on the health workforce due to the relentless and intentional targeting of healthcare facilities. They not only face the challenges of providing care for a conflict-affected population but are also part of the community themselves. They also face ethical dilemmas in their work leading to moral distress and moral injury. Donors must support funding for psychosocial support for health workers in Syria and similar contexts; the focus must be on supporting and enhancing existing context-specific coping strategies.

Geographical Origin, WASH Access, and Clinical Descriptions for Patients Admitted to a Cholera Treatment Center in Northwest Syria between October and December 2022.

Background On September 10, 2022, a cholera outbreak was declared in Syria for the first time in over a decade of protracted conflict. As of May 20, 2023, 132,782 suspected cases had been reported, primarily in northwest and northeast Syria. We aim to provide a detailed description of water sources and clinical status of a patient cohort seen at a cholera treatment center (CTC) in northwest Syria. Methods We retrospectively identified patients with confirmed cholera who presented to the CTC in Idlib governorate between October 8 and December 18, 2022. Data were obtained from clinical case records and analyzed in R v4.0.4. Results Ninety-four patients (55.3% men) were treated at the CTC. Thirty-five patients were severely dehydrated (Plan C treatment), 54 had some dehydration (Plan B), and 5 had no dehydration (Plan A). Most patients were between 11 and 20 years old ( n = 25, 26.6%) or 31 and 40 years old ( n = 19, 20.2%). Note that 70.2% ( n = 66) of patients were seen in November 2022 and most were from Harim district ( n = 44, 46.8%). Public wells ( n = 46, 48.9%) and water trucking ( n = 41, 43.6%) were the most commonly used water sources. Note that 76.6% ( n = 72) did not have access to chlorine-treated water. Forty-seven patients (50%) had more than five water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH)-related cholera risk factors. Following treatment, six patients were transferred to another treatment center, three died (case fatality rate: 3.2%), and the remainder were discharged. Conclusion Most patients reported WASH-related risk factors for cholera, reflecting the poor state of WASH in northwest Syria after over a decade of conflict. This relates to the direct and indirect impacts of urban and periurban violence as well as the underfunded humanitarian response. Strengthening WASH and health promotion are important components to control the outbreak.

Health system recovery in Northwest Syria–challenges and operationalization

The demonstrations in Syria in 2011 became an uncompromising conflict that divided the country into three main areas of control: governmental areas, northeast Syria, and Northwest Syria. A series of United Nations resolutions adopted in 2014 authorizing official cross-border humanitarian aid in opposition-held areas to allow humanitarian agencies and organizations to use routes across the border from neighborhood countries like Turkey to deliver humanitarian assistance to people in need in Syria. The resolution was extended annually until 2021 when it was adapted to involve a cross-line humanitarian response from governmental areas besides cross-border operations. The last adaptation of the cross-border resolution, whose original form was interpreted as a politicized action by Russia and China, implicates an unframed and unplanned transition from an emergency to an Early Recovery status. Without an appropriate framework for the current geopolitical complexity in Syria, Early Recovery programs are doomed to fail, resulting in further complications in the political and humanitarian scenes. Moreover, the effectiveness of the cross-line mechanism is questionable, considering the lack of accessibility and acceptability for Damascus-based humanitarian operations in areas out of government control. The article reviews studies about Early Recovery guidelines and operational frameworks of health systems recovery in post-conflict settings to derive a practical and hybrid framework for operationalizing health system recovery in Northwest Syria, considering current geopolitical and humanitarian circumstances. This article draws upon the six building blocks of the health system, the essential package of public health services, Early Recovery integration criteria, health system resilience dimensions in the literature, and public health determinants to identify context-specific health system recovery challenges and priorities. As a result, we introduce a new health system recovery framework, which is operationalized for the context of Northwest Syria.

‘Strengthening cooperation with external partners: Looking for a common response to the phenomenon of foreign terrorist fighters’

Addressing the challenge of foreign terrorist fighters (FTFs) and their affiliates who travelled to Syria and Iraq to join Da'esh and other terrorist groups has been a priority for the EU and the EU Counter-Terrorism Coordinator since 2013, both within the EU and internationally. This article sets out comprehensive EU cooperation with international partners on foreign terrorist fighters: It covers EU action related to the camps and prisons in North East Syria where FTFs and family members are held, accountability of FTFs and affiliates, cooperation on FTFs with the EU’s neighbourhood: Turkey, Western Balkans and Middle East and North Africa regions, multilateral engagement with the United Nations and other fora as well as addressing Islamist extremist ideology which is contributing to the radicalization process. From a practitioner's perspective, the article provides the EU policy framework and its evolution, as well as examples of capacity building and other initiatives.

Adapting Reach Up and Learn in Crisis and Conflict Settings: An Exploratory Multiple Case Study.

In 2019, >71 million children aged <5 had spent their entire lives in conflict-affected settings. Compounding adversities including violence, poverty, and displacement have immediate and long-term effects on early childhood development, health, behavior, and well-being. In response, adaptations of Reach Up have been implemented in conflict and crisis settings. This article uses exploratory multiple case study methodology, drawing from implementation and qualitative data from 3 interventions: a mobile phone-based intervention promoting nurturing care among Rohingya and crisis-affected host communities in Bangladesh; Reach Up amid acute violence and displacement in Northeast Syria; and Reach Up group sessions and home visits integrated with health services for an indigenous population in Venezuela. In Bangladesh, tailoring interactive voice response messages improved responsiveness to the developmental needs of young children, yet complementary in-person services were identified as a key program enhancement. In Syria, rapid adaptations of Reach Up addressed the needs of families in acute crisis, including social-emotional learning games for school-aged children. In Venezuela, Reach Up, coupled with complementary lactation counseling, yielded high rates of uptake and satisfaction, and children's language development was highlighted as a key area of growth. Recommendations to promote early childhood development in crisis and conflict settings include: (1) cultural adaptation based on a holistic understanding of children and caregivers' needs; (2) the integration of child and family safety and linkages with complementary services on the basis of community needs and priorities, and (3) the importance of designing for scale through blended models and costing analyses.

Identifying and scoping new options for healthcare system strengthening in North East Syria

Identifying and scoping new options for healthcare system strengthening in North East Syria

People vs. peoples: sacrifice and the foundations for sovereignty in 1640’s England and contemporary northeast Syria

ABSTRACT Engaging with state-centric perspectives on sovereignty, and particularly Giorgio Agamben's work, this article argues that despite sovereignty's permanence at the level of the state, the principles upon which it is built can change dramatically. Further, such change may in turn greatly transform the reach and power of the state itself. Using the trial of King Charles in 1649 as a case for of how divine right was replaced by embryonic popular sovereignty through an act of sacrifice, the article contends that several new revolutionary movements are now in turn aiming to overturn popular sovereignty in a similar way. Drawing on secondary material and fieldwork contextualization, the article contends that the Kurdish movement in Syria is currently struggling to disaggregate the state's people into a host of peoples, whose opportunities for political participation depend upon conforming to an ideologically construed vision of human nature. This, the article suggests, may set the frame for revolutionary resistance in the future.

Lessons identified from initiating a thalassaemia programme in a conflict setting: a case study from northeast Syria

BackgroundThalassaemia affects many families in Northeast Syria, an area devastated by over a decade of conflict which has significantly impacted their health system. People with thalassaemia require holistic multidisciplinary care for the clinical complications of thalassaemia. The risks of thalassaemia treatment include blood-borne viral infections secondary to unsafe transfusion, increased vulnerability to serious bacterial infection following splenectomy, and complications of both iron overload and iron chelation therapy. Médecins Sans Frontières (MSF) provided outpatient thalassaemia care programmes in northeast Syria between April 2017 October 2019 in a complex conflict context challenged by population displacement, the destruction of medical facilities, and periods of insecurity.MethodsWe performed a secondary descriptive analysis of the thalassaemia cohort data to describe basic clinical and demographic characteristics of the patient population. A desk review of internal and publicly available documents was supplemented by informal interviews with MSF staff to describe and analyse the programmatic approach.Case descriptionMSF delivered programmes with thalassaemia investigations, provision of blood transfusion, iron chelation therapy, and psychosocial support. Thalassemia programmes were novel for the organisation and operational learning took place alongside service implementation. Lessons were identified on equipment procurement and the requirements for the implementation of vital investigations (including ferritin testing), to inform clinical decision making. Lessons included the importance of supply planning for sufficient blood products to meet diverse clinical needs in a conflict area, so those with thalassaemia have continued access to blood products among the competing priorities. Iron chelation therapy met a large need in this cohort. Adapted protocols were implemented to balance social factors, hygiene considerations, toxicity, tolerability, and adherence to therapy. Wider service needs included considerations for family planning advice and services, continuity of care and patient access through decentralised services or laboratory access, psychosocial support, and improved data collection including quality of life measurements to understand the full impact of such programmes.ConclusionsAlthough this type of programming was not “routine” for the organisation, MSF demonstrated that life-sustaining thalassaemia care can be provided in complex conflict settings. International non-governmental organisations can consider this care possible in similar contexts.

Disruption to water supply and waterborne communicable diseases in northeast Syria: a spatiotemporal analysis

BackgroundIn Syria, disruption to water and sanitation systems, together with poor access to vaccination, forced displacement and overcrowding contribute to increases in waterborne diseases (WBDs). The aim of this study is to perform a spatiotemporal analysis to investigate potential associations between interruptions to water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) and WBDs in northeast Syria using data collected by the Early Warning Alert and Response Network (EWARN) from Deir-ez-Zor, Raqqa, Hassakeh and parts of Aleppo governorates.MethodsWe reviewed the literature databases of MEDLINE and Google Scholar and the updates of ReliefWeb to obtain information on acute disruptions and attacks against water infrastructure in northeast Syria between January 2015 and June 2021. The EWARN weekly trends of five syndromes representing waterborne diseases were plotted and analysed to identify time trends and the influence of these disruptions. To investigate a potential relationship, the Wilcoxon rank sum test was used to compare districts with and without disruptions. Time series analyses were carried out on major disruptions to analyse their effect on WBD incidence.ResultsThe literature review found several instances where water infrastructure was attacked or disrupted, suggesting that water has been deliberately targeted by both state and non-state actors in northeast Syria throughout the conflict. Over time, there was an overall upwards trend of other acute diarrhoea (OAD, p < 0.001), but downwards trends for acute jaundice syndrome, suspected typhoid fever and acute bloody diarrhoea. For the major disruption of the Alouk water plant, an interrupted time series analysis did not find a strong correlation between the disruption and changes in disease incidence in the weeks following the incident, but long-term increases in WBD were observed.ConclusionsWhile no strong immediate correlation could be established between disruptions to WASH and WBDs in northeast Syria, further research is essential to explore the impact of conflict-associated damage to civil infrastructure including WASH. This is vital though challenging given confounding factors which affect both WASH and WBDs in contexts like northeast Syria. As such, research which includes exploration of mitigation after damage to WASH is essential to improve understanding of impacts on quantity and quality of WASH. More granular research which explores the origin of cases of WBDs and how such communities are affected by challenges to WASH is needed. One step towards research on this, is the implementation of adequate reporting mechanisms for real time tracking of the WASH attacks, damages, direct effects, and likely impact in conjunction with environmental and public health bodies and surveillance systems.

Demographic reconstruction of the Halaf culture society on the territory of the Eastern Euphrates

The study of the problem of the population of the Halaf culture in the 6th millennium BC in the territory of the North-Eastern Syria is conducted for the first time in order to study the demographic situation of this region in the Late Neolithic. The statistical approach in paleodemographic reconstruction is the basis of the scientific procedure, because it’s source are the materials of the settlements. It also includes methods used in both Russian and foreign archeology. The basis was taken as the average population density, proposed by foreign anthropologists for the Neolithic in the Eastern Mediterranean, which was compared with the indicators of the southern part of Western Europe and Southwestern Iran. According to the calculations, 30-35 thousand people lived in the territory of northeast Syria during Halaf culture. These results were verified by the method of C. Reed and R. Braidwood, using the method of population density per settlement area by C. Renfrew as well as an indicator of natural annual population growth. This verification confirmed the obtained quantitative indicators of the Khalaf population in Eastern Euphrates. A variant of determining the population of the Halaf settlement of Sabi Abyad I by the residential buildings of the “Burnt Village”, which makes up 1/10 of the area of the monument, is proposed. This result can be an independent baseline for the reconstruction of the paleodemographic characteristics of the Late Neolithic culture of Mesopotamia. Conclusion based on the obtained paleodemographic data: Despite the high infant mortality, Khalaf society is characterised as developing. For comparison, this article presents the demographic indicators of the modern Syrian Arab Republic

In Their Shoes: Health Care in Armed Conflict from the Perspective of a Non-State Armed Actor

Abstract The protection of health care in armed conflict dates to the 1864 Geneva Convention. Yet violations of international humanitarian law related to the protection of health care occur on a near daily basis, and conflict actors continue to obstruct health care actors from assisting people in need in conflict areas. An estimated one-third of the recorded threats affecting health care are attributed to non-state armed actors (NSAAs). Yet given that many NSAAs themselves do in fact provide and facilitate health care, this essay considers NSAAs not just as threats but, in line with international human rights law, also as potential facilitators, providers, and promoters of health care. We discuss the specific case of Northeast Syria, where one NSAA has de facto control of the territory, and examine the level of involvement of NSAAs in the respect, protection, and provision of health care. We also explore some opportunities and challenges in engagement between humanitarian actors and NSAAs on health care provision, with an emphasis on seeing health care from the perspective of the NSAAs themselves.

Scorched earth tactics of the “Islamic State” after its loss of territory: intentional burning of farmland in Iraq and Syria

Recent literature shows increasing interest in analyzing causes of what was referred to as “unusual” fires in Iraq and Syria in 2019. Here, we examine the causes of uncontrolled and irregular fires within farmlands in parts of the two countries in 2019–2020 and quantify their extent spatiotemporally using a combination of medium and coarse-resolution satellite imagery, land cover, precipitation, temperature data, and multiple sources of armed violence data. Our analysis reveals the extent of the deliberate arson of farmland in Iraq and Northeast Syria in 2019–2020. In comparison, only a few fires of farmland were observed in 2007–2013 in Iraq, and Al-Hassakeh, Syria, that became a stronghold of the Islamic State (IS) in 2013. In 2014–2017, we find evidence for increased farmland fires in various locations that closely tracked the military withdrawal of IS between 2015/2016 and 2017 when it lost most of its territory. We find that although the burned area in wheat-producing regions of Iraq (Ninewa and Kirkuk) and Syria have recently increased, the increase in the percentage burned area of agricultural lands in Iraq’s Ninewa and Kirkuk was not unprecedented. MODIS overestimates burned areas when in low fire activity while it underestimates it when fire activity is high, compared to a Landsat–Sentinel-2 combination. A significant positive relationship (r = 0.83) exists between the number of IS-related incidents and the percent burned agricultural area during 2019, which raises questions about the future strategy of the IS terror group and its use and targeting of the water-food complex.