Northwestern Western Australia Research Articles

Multi-Hazard Tropical Cyclone Risk Assessment for Australia

Tropical cyclones (TCs) have long posed a significant threat to Australia’s population, infrastructure, and environment. This threat may grow under climate change as projections indicate continuing rises in sea level and increases in rainfall during TC events. Previous Australian TC risk assessment efforts have focused on the risk from wind, whereas a holistic approach requires multi-hazard risk assessments that also consider impacts of other TC-related hazards. This study assessed and mapped TC risk nationwide, focusing on the impacts on population and infrastructure from the TC-related hazards of wind, storm surges, flooding, and landslides. Risk maps were created at the Local Government Area (LGA) level for all of Australia, using collated data on multiple hazards, exposure, and vulnerability. The results demonstrated that the risk posed by all hazards was highest for coastal LGAs of eastern Queensland and New South Wales, followed by medium risk across Northern Territory and north-western Western Australia. Further enhancement and validation of risk maps developed in this study will provide decision makers with the information needed to reduce TC risk, save lives, and prevent damage to infrastructure.

Age and origin of the West Kimberley lamproites, Western Australia

New high precision 40Ar/39Ar ages are presented which more tightly constrain the eruption ages of the West Kimberley lamproites of northwestern Western Australia. The data show a southward progression in ages of the lamproites over a distance of ∼135 km, from ∼22.5 Ma in the northernmost lamproites of the Ellendale Field to ∼19 Ma in the Noonkanbah Field in the south, excluding the Walgidee Hill lamproite. The large (∼490 ha) zoned Walgidee Hills lamproite at the northern edge of the Noonkanbah Field is the youngest of the West Kimberley lamproites and represents a later pulse of lamproite magmatism at 17.4 Ma, >1 Ma after the main lamproite magmatism.The southward progression of lamproite ages extends across a wide swath from the Proterozoic King Leopold Orogen at the southern margin of the Kimberley Craton to the Phanerozoic Fitzroy Trough in the Canning Basin. The magmatism does not appear to be the result of the migration of a mantle plume, but more likely reflects small degrees of partial melting of old, thick, metasomatised lithosphere extending from the craton margin beneath the basin, with melting triggered by regional uplift and/or small-scale mantle convection at the craton margin. Emplacement of the lamproites likely exploited ancient trans-lithospheric structures associated with the Proterozoic orogen at the craton margin and structures associated with the formation of the Canning Basin in the Phanerozoic.

Pilbarana, a new subterranean amphipod genus (Hadzioidea: Eriopisidae) of environmental assessment importance from the Pilbara, Western Australia

The Pilbara and nearby regions in north-western Western Australia have an exceptionally high diversity of short-range endemic invertebrates inhabiting threatened groundwater-dependent habitats. Amphipod crustaceans, in particular, are dominant in these communities, but are poorly understood taxonomically, with many undescribed species. Recent molecular phylogenetic analyses of Pilbara eriopisid amphipods have, nonetheless, uncovered a previously unknown biodiversity. In this study, we formally establish a new genus, Pilbarana Stringer & King gen. nov., and describe two new species, P. grandis Stringer & King sp. nov. from Cane River Conservation Park and P. lowryi Stringer & King sp. nov. from the Fortescue River Basin near the Hamersley Range, using a combination of molecular and morphological data. The new genus is similar morphologically to the two additional Western Australian eriopisid genera, Nedsia Barnard & Williams, 1995 and Norcapensis Bradbury & Williams, 1997, but represents a genetically divergent, reciprocally monophyletic lineage, which can be differentiated by its vermiform body shape, the presence of an antennal sinus, and by the length and form of the antennae and uropods. This research signifies an important contribution to knowledge of Pilbara subterranean communities and has critical implications for future environmental impact assessments and conservation management.

Follow-up rates for patients needing regular intravitreal therapy in rural north-western Western Australia.

Regular intravitreal injections are an important treatment for significant vision impairment caused by diabetic macular oedema. Barriers to intravitreal treatment for rural Australian patients include travel time to appointments, especially as patients face a high volume of other medical appointments for their diabetes and related co-morbidities. This audit addresses intravitreal injection compliance by identifying patients lost to follow up in north-western Western Australia. A retrospective audit of all injections was performed in the Pilbara and Kimberley between January and December 2018. Outcome measures included total injections, number of injection patients, rates of patients lost to follow-up by region, Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander status and diagnosis. The audit was extended to include the first 6 months of 2019 to ensure further treatment plan timeframes had lapsed. A total of 140 patients received injections, resulting in 346 injections. Ten patients were excluded due to relocation to another region and three patients were deceased. Seventeen patients were lost to follow-up (12.1%). Of those lost to follow-up, 14.3% were in the Pilbara region and 10% in the Kimberley region. Similar rates with respect to Indigenous status with 12.6% identifying as Aboriginal and 11.4% not. 15.8% were treated for diabetic macular oedema and 3.8% for age-related macular degeneration. The logistics of providing appropriate intravitreal therapy, including scheduling timely visits and working in hospital and community-controlled settings, requires a specific focus on those needing intravitreal treatment. The study highlights the importance of coordination and systems to enable patients to receive injections in remote settings. Further analysis of optimal patient management plans for appropriate frequency and treatment outcomes is required.

Environmental factors and predator abundance predict the distribution and occurrence of two sympatric urchin species at Ningaloo Reef, Western Australia

Sea urchins can play a critical ecological role in the functioning of marine benthic ecosystems, mediating competitive interactions between corals and algae. Yet, little is known about factors affecting urchin distribution in intact coral reef systems. This study aims to determine the spatial distribution of two sympatric urchin species, Echinometra mathaei and Echinostrephus molaris, and potential factors contributing to this, within the intact coral reef system of Ningaloo Marine Park, north-western Western Australia. Benthic photographs and surveys were conducted on SCUBA at 126 sites across the Park to determine urchin presence, rugosity, substrate cover, water velocity, and fish predation for each site. Generalised additive models found that E. mathaei presence was positively related to algal cover, rugosity and non-sanctuary zones, suggesting that distribution may be driven by foraging behaviour, habitat complexity and predation. Echinostrephus molaris presence was positively related to habitat and region, suggesting its distribution may be largely driven by hydrodynamics, feeding strategy and regional variation. This study highlighted species-habitat associations and the complexities of these in structuring urchin communities. Although occupying similar niches, the predominantly non-overlapping feeding preferences, and morphological and behavioural differences between E. mathaei and E. molaris enable these species to coexist within the intact reef system of Ningaloo Marine Park.

Working up an Apatite: Enigmatic Mesoarchean Hydrothermal Cu-Co-Au Mineralization in the Pilbara Craton

Abstract Globally, significant examples of hydrothermal Cu-Co mineralization are rare within Archean greenstone belts, especially relative to the endowment of these terranes with other world-class hydrothermal ore deposits, particularly Au deposits. Using U-Pb geochronology of hydrothermal apatite, this study provides the first absolute age constraints on the timing of mineralization for the Carlow Castle Cu-Co-Au deposit. Carlow Castle is a complex, shear zone-hosted, veined Cu-Co-Au mineral system situated within the Paleo-Mesoarchean Roebourne greenstone belt of the Pilbara craton of northwestern Western Australia. Although U-Pb geochronology of this deposit is challenging due to low levels of radiogenic Pb in synmineralization apatite, mineralization is best estimated at 2957 ± 67 Ma (n = 61). Additionally, analysis of alteration phases associated with Carlow Castle mineralization suggests that it is dominated by a propylitic assemblage that is characteristic of alkaline fluid chemistry and peak temperatures >300°C. Within proximal portions of the northwest Pilbara craton, the period of Carlow Castle’s formation constrained here is associated with significant base-metal volcanogenic massive sulfide mineralization and magmatic activity related to back-arc rifting. This rifting and associated magmatic activity are the most likely source of Carlow Castle’s unique Cu-Co-Au mineralization. Carlow Castle’s Mesoarchean mineralization age makes it among the oldest discovered Cu-Co-Au deposits globally, and unique in the broader context of hydrothermal Cu-Co-Au deposits. Globally, hydrothermal Cu-Co mineralization occurs almost exclusively as Proterozoic and Phanerozoic stratiform sediment-hosted Cu-Co deposits due to the necessity of meteorically derived oxidized ore fluids in their formation. This research therefore has implications for exploration for atypical Cu-Co deposits and Cu-Co metallogenesis through recognition of comparably uncommon magmatic-hydrothermal Cu-Co-Au ore-forming processes and, consequently, the potential for analogous Cu-Co-Au mineralization in other Archean greenstone belts.

Plundering Carlow Castle: First Look at a Unique Mesoarchean-Hosted Cu-Co-Au Deposit

Abstract Economically significant and geologically complex veined Cu-Co-Au mineralization was recently discovered at Carlow Castle in the Pilbara region of northwestern Western Australia. The inferred resource estimate for Carlow Castle as of March 2019 is 7.7 million tonnes (Mt) at 1.06 g/t Au, 0.51% Cu, and 0.08% Co, making it one of Australia’s most significant known Cu-Co-Au deposits. Here we provide the first account and scientific analysis of Carlow Castle. This analysis suggests that it is a hydrothermal Cu-Co-Au deposit, with mineralization hosted in sulfide-rich quartz-carbonate veins. The ore is hosted in veins that occur within a pervasively chloritized shear zone through the regionally significant Regal thrust. At Carlow Castle the shear zone associated with this thrust occurs within the Ruth Well Formation, an Archean mafic volcano-sedimentary sequence. Within the mineralized veins the dominant ore minerals are pyrite (FeS2), chalcopyrite (CuFeS2), chalcocite (Cu2S), cobaltite (CoAsS), and electrum (Au,Ag). The genesis of the Carlow Castle deposit is still under investigation; however, the origin of the Cu-Co-Au mineralization is most likely related to the migration of metalliferous fluids along the Regal thrust. Based on Carlow Castle’s stratigraphic position within the Pilbara craton and the craton’s relative stability since the Archean, an Archean age of mineralization is most likely. The distinct Cu-Co-Au enrichment at Carlow Castle makes it unique among Archean ore deposits generally, as the majority of Cu-Co deposits are of maximum Proterozoic age. Therefore, understanding the genesis of the Carlow Castle deposit has important implications for understanding the unique processes through which Cu-Co-Au mineralization outside of basin-hosted ore deposits may be formed, particularly in Archean terranes.

890. NICOTIANA BENTHAMIANA

Nicotiana benthamiana is described and illustrated from plants collected in northwestern Western Australia and cultivated at the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. It is widely used as a laboratory plant in plant virus studies, and we also discuss its cytology, cultivation and natural ecology.

Behavioural divergence during biological invasions: a study of cane toads (Rhinella marina) from contrasting environments inHawai'i.

Invasive species must deal with novel challenges, both from the alien environment and from pressures arising from range expansion per se (e.g. spatial sorting). Those conditions can create geographical variation in behaviour across the invaded range, as has been documented across regions of Australia invaded by cane toads; range-edge toads are more exploratory and willing to take risks than are conspecifics from the range-core. That behavioural divergence might be a response to range expansion and invasion per se, or to the different environments encountered. Climate differs across the cane toads' invasion range from the wet tropics of Queensland to the seasonally dry climates of northwestern Western Australia. The different thermal and hydric regimes may affect behavioural traits via phenotypic plasticity or through natural selection. We cannot tease apart the effects of range expansion versus climate in an expanding population but can do so in a site where the colonizing species was simultaneously released in all suitable areas, thus removing any subsequent phase of range expansion. Cane toads were introduced to Hawai'i in 1932; and thence to Australia in 1935. Toads were released in all major sugarcane-growing areas in Hawai'i within a 12-month period. Hence, Hawai'ian cane toads provide an opportunity to examine geographical divergence in behavioural traits in a climatically diverse region (each island has both wet and dry sides) in the absence of range expansion subsequent to release. We conducted laboratory-based behavioural trials testing exploration, risk-taking and response to novelty using field-caught toads from the wet and dry sides of two Hawai'ian islands (Oahu and Hawai'i). Toads from the dry side of Oahu had a higher propensity to take risks than did toads from the dry side of Hawai'i. Toads from Oahu were also more exploratory than were conspecifics from the island of Hawai'i. However, toads from wet versus dry climates were similar in all behaviours that we scored, suggesting that founder effects, genetic drift, or developmentally plastic responses to ecological factors other than climate may have driven behavioural divergence between islands.

The influence of tropical cyclones on long-term riverine flooding; examples from tropical Australia

Luminescence chronologies for two new slackwater flood deposit (SWD) sites (Broken River northeast Queensland and Ord River northwestern Western Australia) are presented and these along with other SWD chronologies from the same regions are compared with recently developed high resolution, isotope tropical cyclones (TC) records. Heightened TC activity occurred between 1400 and 1850 CE in Queensland and between 1500 and 1850 CE in Western Australia. A distinct clustering of flood events in northwest Western Australia during the period of enhanced TC activity suggests the two may be related. The SWD records in northeast Queensland do not cluster specifically during the period of heightened TC activity however several major floods do occur during this time suggesting that TCs may have been involved.

An anaerobic ∼3400 Ma shallow-water microbial consortium: Presumptive evidence of Earth’s Paleoarchean anoxic atmosphere

A microbial consortium preserved in shallow water carbonaceous chert of the Paleoarchean (∼3400Ma) Strelley Pool Formation (Pilbara Craton, northwestern Western Australia) is composed of copiously abundant globular “cobweb-like” swirls of randomly oriented filaments intermingled with laterally extensive flat-laminated masses of subparallel filaments. The shallow-water (possibly mudflat-like) habitat of the biocoenose is established by its geological setting and intimately intermixed association with millimetric quartz radiating laths and rosettes interpreted to be pseudomorphs after evaporitic gypsum/anhydrite. The indigenousness and syngenicity of the permineralized fossils to the encompassing chert; their uncompacted minimally altered “life-like” spatial distribution; and their biogenicity and bacterial affinity are shown by optical microscopic, Raman spectroscopic and confocal laser scanning microscopic analyses in situ that document the mineralogy of their embedding matrix and their cylindrical filamentous morphology, cellularity, and kerogenous composition.By comparison with mid-Precambrian and modern sulfur-cycling ecosystems, and consistent with sulfur isotopic data and their intimate co-existence with copious microgranular pyrite and pseudomorphs evidently after sulfate, the swirled aggregates are interpreted to be anaerobic sulfuretums. In contrast, the intermixed flat-laminated components, like microbes of fossil and modern stromatolitic mat communities, are interpreted to be co-occurring light-requiring phototrophs. Whether such phototrophs were anoxygenic photosynthesizers, like extant photosynthetic bacteria (e.g., chloroflexaleans) or facultatively anaerobic cyanobacteria (cf. Oscillatoria limnetica), their anoxygenic metabolism seems plausibly established. Given its great age, shallow water habitat, and anaerobic/microaerophilic physiology, this evidently first reported occurrence from the fossil record of anoxygenic phototrophs and of a microbial sulfuretum-phototroph consortium is consistent with the supposition that Earth’s Paleoarchean environment was essentially anoxic and suggests that O2-producing photosynthesis may have been a later evolutionary innovation.

Invasive Eurasian Tree Sparrows Passer montanus on Troughton Island in the North Kimberley of Western Australia: A cyclone-induced colonisation attempt?

Four Eurasian Tree Sparrows Passer montanus were recorded on Troughton Island, north-western Western Australia, on 6–8 August 2016. Reports indicate that these were the remaining birds (or progeny) from a group of 17 birds that arrived after a storm in c. 2011; the population then dwindled despite apparently breeding over the next 5 years. This represents the first documented colonisation by this species of a near-shore location in Australia with little or no likelihood of ship assistance.

Coastal Talitridae (Amphipoda: Talitroidea) from north-western Australia to Darwin with a revision of the genus Cochinorchestia Lowry & Peart, 2010.

Three species of coastal talitrids are reported from north-western Western Australia: Australorchestia tantabiddyensis sp. nov., from Tantabiddy Rockholes Cave, Cape Range National Park; Talorchestia dampieri sp. nov. from Roebuck Bay, Broome and Cygnet Bay, King Sound; and Tropicorchestia derbyensis gen. et sp. nov. from Derby, King Sound. Five species are reported from west of Darwin, Northern Territory: Cochinorchestia lindsayae sp. nov.; Cochinorchestia metcalfeae sp. nov.; Floresorchestia limicola (Haswell, 1880); Microrchestia ntensis sp. nov.; and Tropicorchestia glasbyi sp. nov. The genus Cochinorchestia Lowry & Peart, 2010 is revised: Orchestia notabilis of Griffiths, 1973 is assigned to the new species Cochinorchestia morrumbene sp. nov. from Mozambique; Orchestia sp. of Ledoyer, 1979 is assigned to the new species Cochinorchestia poka sp. nov. from Ambon, eastern Indonesia; and Orchestia notabilis of Ledoyer 1986 is assigned to the new species Cochinorchestia tulear sp. nov. from south-western Madagascar. Microrchestia sp. of Bussarawich 1985 appears to be an undescribed species of Cochinorchestia from Thailand. We introduce the term virgula dentata to describe the highly modified tip of antenna 2 in talitrid amphipods and propose a theory for the age and current distribution of the family.

Land–sea correlations in the Australian region: post-glacial onset of the monsoon in northwestern Western Australia

Deep-sea core Fr10/95-GC17, collected offshore North West Cape at the western tip of Western Australia, is located beneath the path of the Leeuwin Current. This shallow, warm and low salinity current is an offshoot of the Indonesian Throughflow that transfers water and heat from the West Pacific Ocean into the Indian Ocean. The location is at the edge of the Indo Pacific Warm Pool, the source of large-scale transfer of moisture and heat from the ocean to the atmosphere. For this core, we combine previously published data with new research and use a revised chronology to re-examine the timing of climate change during the last 34,000 years in the tropics of northern Australia. The age model for the core is based on 15 radiocarbon dates complemented by luminescence ages and an oxygen isotope record. This study draws on an extensive range of analyses that have been performed on the core, including micropalaeontology of planktic and benthic foraminifera and coccoliths, stable isotopes analysis of foraminifera and their faunal composition, clay content, sediment composition and pollen analyses. Sea-surface and land temperatures are estimated from the foraminifer faunal analyses and from pollen spectra, respectively. The clay fraction and sediment composition and radiogenic isotopes of that fraction helped identify changes both on land and at sea: changes such as rainfall as shown by river discharge, and oceanic current tracing by neodymium, strontium and lead isotopes obtained from sediments.The most significant finding is that a major threshold was crossed at 13kaBP. Prior to that time, rainfall over NW Western Australia was low as was sea-surface temperature (SST); river discharge to the ocean was also low as a result of the lack of monsoonal activity and finally, ocean alkalinity would have been lower than at present due to the uptake of atmospheric CO2. By 13kaBP, the entire system moved away from glacial period conditions. The Indo-Australian monsoon commenced in and offshore northwestern Western Australia. SST and land temperature increased dramatically and ocean alkalinity changed due to the formation of a “barrier layer” (a low salinity cap), over the Indo Pacific Warm Pool. During the Holocene, river discharge and the land and ocean temperatures did not covary, for example, the highest rainfall did not coincide with the highest SST. Finally, the last 5ka saw a strengthening of ENSO in the region.

A 550 ka record of aeolian activity near North West Cape, Australia: inferences from grain-size distributions and bulk chemistry of SE Indian Ocean deep-sea sediments

The terrigenous fraction of sediments from a deep-sea sediment core recovered from the northwestern Western Australian continental slope offshore North West Cape, SE Indian Ocean, reveals a history of Western Australian climate throughout the last 550 ka. End-member modelling of a data set of grain-size distributions (n = 438) of the terrigenous sediment fraction allows to interpret the record in terms of aeolian and fluvial sediment deposition, both related to palaeo-environmental conditions in the North West Cape area. The data set can be best described by two aeolian end members and one fluvial one. Changes in the ratio of the two aeolian end members over the fluvial one are interpreted as aridity variations in northwestern Western Australia. These grain-size data are compared with bulk geochemical data obtained by XRF scans of the core. Log-ratios of the elements Zr/Fe and Ti/Ca, which indicate a terrigenous origin, corroborate the grain-size data. We postulate that the mid- to late Quaternary near North West Cape climate was relatively arid during the glacial and relatively humid during the interglacial stages, owing to meridional shifts in the atmospheric circulation system. Opposite to published palaeo-environmental records from the same latitude (20°S) offshore Chile and offshore Namibia, the Australian aridity record does not show the typical southern hemisphere climate variability of humid glacials and dry interglacials, which we interpret to be the result of the relatively large land mass of the Australian continent, which emphasises a strong monsoonal climatic system.

Quantifying magnetite magnetofossil contributions to sedimentary magnetizations

Under suitable conditions, magnetofossils (the inorganic remains of magnetotactic bacteria) can contribute to the natural remanent magnetization (NRM) of sediments. In recent years, magnetofossils have been shown to be preserved commonly in marine sediments, which makes it essential to quantify their importance in palaeomagnetic recording. In this study, we examine a deep-sea sediment core from offshore of northwestern Western Australia. The magnetic mineral assemblage is dominated by continental detritus and magnetite magnetofossils. By separating magnetofossil and detrital components based on their different demagnetization characteristics, it is possible to quantify their respective contributions to the sedimentary NRM throughout the Brunhes chron. In the studied core, the contribution of magnetofossils to the NRM is controlled by large-scale climate changes, with their relative importance increasing during glacial periods when detrital inputs were low. Our results demonstrate that magnetite magnetofossils can dominate sedimentary NRMs in settings where they are preserved in significant abundances.

<strong>An annotated checklist of the fishes of the Northern Territory, Australia</strong>

There are 1474 fish species now known from the Northern Territory, in 195 families, with a number of these species still undescribed. The 1474 species include 120 new records for the NT and three for Australia, while nine non-native species exist as small feral populations.The most speciose family is the Gobiidae (gobies), with 150 recognised species, and is the main fish group inhabiting coral reef and mangrove areas. The fish fauna of the Northern Territory occupies several biogeographical regions, which include the internal river drainages of Australia and the Sahul Shelf adjoining New Guinea and Indonesia. The Northern Territory's fish fauna most closely resembles that of north-western Western Australia, and many species are shared with this region. Among the Northern Territory's fish fauna are 55 species considered to be threatened under various listings (ASFB, EPBC), with the poor state of knowledge of the NT's fish populations and their true distributions hindering assessment. Many sampling gaps remain and the basic biology of most species is unknown.

Development of microsatellite loci for the riparian tree species Melaleuca argentea (Myrtaceae) using 454 sequencing.

• Premise of the study: Microsatellite primers were developed for Melaleuca argentea (Myrtaceae) to evaluate genetic diversity and population genetic structure of this broadly distributed northern Australian riparian tree species.• Methods and Results: 454 GS-FLX shotgun sequencing was used to obtain 5860 sequences containing putative microsatellite motifs. Two multiplex PCRs were optimized to genotype 11 polymorphic microsatellite loci. These loci were screened for variation in individuals from two populations in the Pilbara region, northwestern Western Australia. Overall, observed heterozygosities ranged from 0.27 to 0.86 (mean: 0.52) and the number of alleles per locus ranged from two to 13 (average: 4.3).• Conclusions: These microsatellite loci will be useful in future studies of the evolutionary history and population and spatial genetic structure in M. argentea, and inform the development of seed sourcing strategies for the species.

‘The privilege of employing natives’: the Quan Sing affair and Chinese-Aboriginal employment in Western Australia, 1889–1934

In September 1921, two permits to employ Aborigines were forwarded to the Western Australian Chief Protector of Aborigines, AO Neville. The permits allowed Miss Yuanho Quan Sing of Derby in north-western Western Australia to engage the services of two individuals: 'Bobbydol' and 'Roebourne Annie'. The permits had been authorised by the Resident Magistrate and local Protector of Aborigines, William Hodge. 'Miss Quan Sing was told ... you could not grant her a permit to employ [A]boriginals', explained the covering note, 'but not withstanding this and the cancellation of her permit last year, she persists in her endeavour to obtain the privilege of employing natives'. Neville immediately directed Hodge to cancel the permits, telling him, 'Quan Sing and his family have made numerous efforts from time to time to employ natives, all of which have been frustrated'.

Behaviour of Nassarius bicallosus (Caenogastropoda) on a northwestern Western Australian surf beach with a review of feeding in the Nassariidae

The intertidal nassariid Nassarius bicallosus lives on surf-exposed beaches across northern Australia including 80-Mile Beach near Broome in northwestern Western Australia. As the tide recedes, N. bicallosus emerges from the sand and feeds on a film of surface inorganic and organic particles, as confirmed by gut content analysis, but it may also be an opportunistic scavenger. Based on a review of feeding in nassariids, their widely reported habit of scavenging is probably and largely opportunistic in most taxa, although it appears to be obligatory in species of Bullia that are similarly occupants of surf beaches in South Africa.